MJ

Also visit http://vision.info.bg/saryan/ . [ March 05, 2001: Message edited by: MJ ]

http://hep2.physics.arizona.edu/~savin/ram/mikoyan.jpg Artem Mikoyan

The Armenian Communities Department [of Gubenkian Foundation - MJ] aims to develop ways of providing support to the eight million Armenians dispersed throughout the world. It offers this assistance in three priority areas: Education, Science and Publications. 1. EDUCATION A major priority of the Department's work is the educational sector, best illustrated by the annual award of a certain number of higher education scholarships. The Department also has a special scholarship programme for seminary students at the six Armenian theological training centres, which are: Etchmiadzine in Armenia, Antelias and Bzommar in Lebanon, Jerusalem, Venice and Vienna. Another important part of the Department's work in education is for the Armenian schools in the Diaspora. The Department has established a special programme for them by covering the tuition fees of a certain proportion of the pupils. Subject to well-defined priorities, the department further endeavours to provide the schools with the teaching materials they require to fulfil their vocation. Above all, the department's grant-giving priorities distinctly tend to be aimed at the Middle Eastern countries, where the Armenian population is greatest and in most need, especially in Syria, Lebanon and Turkey. There is a special programme of aid towards the improvement of sanitation facilities, which has become essential in the Armenian schools of these three countries. 2. SUPPORT TO SCIENCE IN ARMENIA In the matter of Science, the Department's main activity is focused primarily on Armenia, and is specially centred on its four pillars of science and knowledge, that is to say, the National Academy of Sciences, the State University of Yerevan, the National Library and the Matenadaran (or Library of Ancient Manuscripts). After the collapse of the old regime and of the network of scientific relations, which the country used to enjoy, the Department aims to ensure that these four institutions possess all they need to function autonomously and normally. Thus the Department has recently offered the National Academy of Sciences and the State University computerised equipment to enable scientists to pursue their studies and research, at the same as giving them access to an indispensable network of information and contacts on the international scene. Furthermore, an ultra modern printing press was sent from Lisbon to the National Academy of Sciences. This entirely computerised equipment enables the country to undertake the gradual recovery of its role as Mother country to Armenians throughout the Diaspora. Thus, besides meeting its own printing needs, it should be able to meet those of the Diaspora. Another objective of the Armenian Communities Department's activities is to encourage medical research. This support is carried out through the award of training scholarships, the organisation of training programmes in the Diaspora, or by direct logistic support. By way of example, under the Armenian Communities Department's patronage, we may mention the creation of a new Genetics Laboratory, following agreements reached between the Henri Mondor of Créteil-Paris Hospital and the National Academy of Sciences of Armenia. This Laboratory is carrying out specific research in particular into the Periodical Disease, a disease unique of its kind, which seriously effects some ancient populations, particularly those spread all around the Mediterranean Sea. In addition to genetics, support is also given to botanical and biological research, which is in the course of active development in Armenia. This illustrates the efforts that have been made to face the rapid growth of several diseases, resulting from the earthquake in 1988 and from the consequences of natural and environmental disasters. 3. PUBLICATIONS: The Department has its own publications, and also supports the publication of certain works generally considered to be essential works of reference in the world of Armenology. These publications are of fundamental importance and great scientific interest. Armenian Communities Av. de Berna, 45A 1067-001 Lisboa - Portugal carmenias@gulbenkian.pt http://www.gulbenkian.pt/indexa_ing.html

The Calouste Gulbenkian Story by Fred Stern http://www.artnet.com/magazine/features/stern/Images/stern1-7-1s.jpg Calouste Gulbenkian in his late 20s If your wealth makes Aristotle Onassis look like a pauper, and your taste does not run to fancy yachts and celebrity women, you can afford to please the sensitivity of your eyes, the dream castles of your mind, the velvety touch of your fingers, and your art collection is poised to become the envy of decades of collectors in the future. You are Calouste Gulbenkian and highlights from your collection are now on view at the new Greek galleries at New York's Metropolitan Museum until Feb. 27, 2000. Calouste Gulbenkian (1899-1955), sometimes known in the press as "Mr. Five Percent," was the architect of a fabulous network of pipeline deals that made him one of the wealthiest men this side of Istanbul. He got his start after his affluent parents sent him to Kings College, London, where he received an engineering degree with distinction. At age 22 he wrote a book on the management of petroleum resources, which came to the attention of the Turkish minister in charge of the oil fields of the Ottoman Empire. In short order Gulbenkian engineered the creation of the Turkish Petroleum Company and set up a consortium between the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell and Deutsche Bank. But Gulbenkian was also an avid collector. He began collecting Greek and Roman coins in early boyhood and then expanded his activities in the early 1920's. Soon no museum or private collector could match his resources, determination and his connoisseurship. Norton Simon and his mini-Louvre in Pasadena, replete with Rembrandts, Bassanos, Gauguins and Asian acquisitions, pales against Gulbenkian's treasures. The Duke of Bedford's 24 Canalettos are no match. The 12 Holbeins of Prince von Fürstenberg and Donaueschingen don't come close. What did Gulbenkian collect? More precisely, what didn't he collect. Aside from his requirement that any acquisition be "only the best," Gulbenkian insisted that all his objects have a classical orientation, whether they be paintings or sculpture, jewelry or ceramics, Persian rugs or the exquisite creations of brooches by French jeweler/designer René Lalique (1860-1945). We have no way of assessing the collecting history of this Armenian-Portuguese connoisseur. When you are this rich you can change your mind as many times as you like, switch in and out of fields, areas of collecting or artists whenever the whim strikes you. Gulbenkian's "mistakes" made fabulous wedding gifts. If what he craved was unavailable on the open market, he approached the likes of the Rothschilds and Pierpont Morgan and bargained for their prized possessions. He usually got his way in the end, but sometimes, reluctantly, he backed off from an item he had his heart set on, such as the Goya Duchess of Chinchon. Gulbenkian's executors funded the Gulbenkian Foundation in Portugal with an endowment of $2.6 billion and an annual budget of $102 million. Housed in a palace-like structure, and set in a 17-acre park replete with a permanent sculpture display and a children's art center, the foundation holds all 6,800 artifacts of Gulbenkian's collection "under one roof," as stipulated. The current Met show, which features 80 works, is a result of renovations at the Lisbon center. Edouard Manet's Boy Blowing Bubbles (1807), though reminiscent of Jean Baptiste Siméon Chardin's Soap Bubbles, matches freshness and delight with the innocent pleasures of childhood. This impressive late Gulbenkian purchase (1943) is from the estate of Adolf Lewisohn. Joseph Mallord William Turner's Wreck of a Transport Ship (1810) is a searingly dramatic picture of a ship and its human cargo caught in a destructive maelstrom. The painting is organized around diagonal masts and broken oars while brilliant shards of color of the about-to-be shipwrecked contrast with the white spray of the indifferent waves. The helplessness of the passengers is clear. The spirit of quattrocento Florence is caught refreshingly in the image of the Portrait of a Young Woman (1485) by Domenico Ghirlandaio. The coral necklace provides a wonderful transition between lips, hair and a suitably simple dress. In sculpture, too, Gulbenkian went for the very best and so we have Jean-Antoine Houdon's Apollo (1790), a sand-cast bronze sculpture that waited for completion while Houdon was in Virginia working on his bust of Washington. The image of the immensely beautiful head of Apollo with its crown of flowing hair has found wide dissemination as a relief medallion. Gulbenkian, a devoted Egyptologist, managed to locate a rare bronze sculpture with gold and copper inlay from Dynasty XXIII, the reign of King Pedubast, 818-791 B.C. Richly ornamented with divine figures and encrustations in gold and copper, the 10-inch-high artifact attests to the vitality and artistic excellence of a stormy period in Egyptian history. A Jewel for the Eagles and Pines Choker (ca. 1899-1901) is an enormous rectangular cabochon opal, lightly touching pine branches whose needles are enhanced by golden pine cones hiding two eagles enameled in dark blue. This pin and others were bought directly from its creator, René Lalique, in July 1901 when Gulbenkian was all of 12 years old! My eye was attracted to Japanese objects, especially the exhibition's only writing box. Writing boxes, used primarily by traveling savants, were typically lacquered with relief decorations, and are among the most admired artifacts in Japanese art. The example on view is almost overly rich in its intricacies, displaying a folding screen, a grove of trees, an owl sitting in a branch, a hawk chained to a perch, a clothes rack with robes and two inros (pouches that held tobacco or medicine). Two other inros on view are equally ornate and impressive. Gulbenkian also gloried in Turkish (Iznik) ceramics. In his collection their stunning forms span the centuries beginning with the 1600's. Rich examples of Persian carpets, hangings and panels suggest how much more is housed at the Foundation in Lisbon. FRED STERN writes on art and antiques. http://www.artnet.com/magazine/features/st...stern1-7-00.asp [ March 04, 2001: Message edited by: MJ ]

BE MY GUEST A Jew, a Hindu, and a lawyer were traveling from Chicago to Los Angeles when their car broke down late one night in Kansas. They walked to the nearest farm house and explained their situation to the farmer who answered the door. "Ya'll be welcome to spend the night here if you want", the farmer said. "The only problem is I only have room for two. One of you will have to sleep in the barn." "I will," exclaimed the Jew, and with that the men went to retire. A short time later came a knock at the door. It was the Jew. "I'm sorry", the Jew said, "but I can't sleep in the barn. There's a pig in there, and my religion forbids me to sleep in the same room as a pig." "Then I will go sleep in the barn" exclaimed the Hindu, and once more the men went to retire. Soon there came another knock at the door. It was the Hindu. "I am very sorry", the Hindu said, "but I cannot sleep in the barn either. There is a cow in there, and my religion forbids me to sleep in the same room as a cow." "Oh, for gosh sakes!", the lawyer cried. I'll go sleep in the damn barn!" and once again the men went to retire. A few minutes later there came yet another knock at the door. It was the cow and the pig...

Dear Aharon, I do remember Ararat-73 very well. What a time .... I am absolutely convinced that many of us would be delighted to see your contribution.

A BUN IN HILLARY'S OVEN In preparation for her run for the Senate, Hillary went for a physical checkup and discovered that she was, of all things, pregnant. "No way!" she told Jill, her gynecologist. "No question about it, Mrs. Clinton," Dr. Jill replied, "you are most definitely a month pregnant." Hilly stormed out of the office, into her limo, whipped out her cell phone and called the most private of private numbers at the White House. "Ye-llo --?" Bill's chirped over the phone. "Don't 'Ye-llo' me, you damn jerk!" she started screaming. "You know what you did? Right before I'm do something on my own, stand up for myself for a change instead of holding your stupid hand?! You know what you did?! You got me pregnant!!!" Silence on the other end. "Did you hear what I said, William Jefferson Moron Clinton?! YOU GOT ME PREGNANT!!" Finally Bill answered, quietly, carefully, "Uh -- who is this? http://www.hillaryjokes.com/

http://www.joke-of-the-day.com/images/email/mred.gif

quote:Originally posted by Berj: RFE/RL Armenia Report - 03/02/2001 2 March 2001 NEWS BRIEFS Leader Of Gunmen Acts To Prolong Trial .... I like the process. Maybe it can lead to a judicial reform in Armenia?

quote:Originally posted by Berj: Armenia's future I don't want the future. I want something now.

quote:Originally posted by Berj: MJ, After reading the headline I got an impression that he had a discussion with you over the globalisation issues (kiddin'). Yeas. He had been receiving consultations from my soul, which travels over Armenia when I am asleep.

Ararat-73, Welcome to the forum. You are petty well informed. I remember that legendary day in weight lifting. I have a feeling that next you are going to move into the field of soccer.

I hope nothing of the kind happens to Ali. _____________________________________________ Armenian National Committee of America 888 17th Street, NW, Suite 904 Washington, DC, 20006 Tel. (202) 775-1918 Fax (202) 775-5648 E-mail: anca@anca.org Internet: <http://www.anca.org/>http://www.anca.org PRESS RELEASE For Immediate Release Contact: Elizabeth S. Chouldjian March 2, 2001 Tel: (202) 775-1918 TURKEY PROSECUTING HUMAN RIGHTS ACTIVIST ON CHARGES OF RECOGNIZING ARMENIAN GENOCIDE -- Turkish Government Escalating Enforcement of Armenian Genocide "Gag Rule" on its Own Citizens WASHINGTON, DC - The Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA) today called on the U.S. State Department to protest the prosecution of a Turkish human rights activist on charges that he had called on Turkey to apologize for the Armenian Genocide. The activist, Akin Birdal, is the former president of the Istanbul-based Human Rights Association and Turkey's leading human rights advocate. He recently completed a 10 month sentence for speeches he gave in 1995 and 1996 supporting the democratic aspirations of the Kurdish people. The Armenian Genocide-related charges currently against him carry a maximum prison sentence of six years. According to a March 1st Associated Press (AP) article, "Birdal's lawyer Sedat Aslantas said earlier that his client had made remarks about Turkey's treatment of minorities in general and not particularly the Armenians." The AP story also noted that "dozens of writers, journalists and intellectuals have been jailed under Turkish laws which limit freedom of speech." "The State Department should not stand quietly on the sidelines as the Turkish government violates internationally accepted protections of freedom of expression, intimidating its own citizens by enforcing an Armenian Genocide 'Gag Rule,'" said ANCA Executive Director Aram Hamparian. "By this standard, the Turkish government would arrest President Bush for his campaign statements, imprison the overwhelming majority of the U.S. Congress for supporting Genocide recognition legislation, prosecute nearly every Holocaust and Genocide scholar for affirming the facts of the Armenian Genocide, and indict basically everybody else that they have not paid off or intimidated into complicity in their shameful campaign of genocide denial." Congressman Smith Criticizes the Turkish Government's Intimidation of its Own Citizens Turkey's efforts to block Armenian Genocide recognition were also discussed during a March 27th hearing of the House International Relations Subcommittee on International Operations. As part of his argument against proposed cutbacks in U.S. international broadcasting programs in Turkey, Subcommittee member Chris Smith (R-NJ) reviewed for the panel the campaign of threats and intimidation the Turkish government used last year against the White House and Congress to prevent consideration of the Armenian Genocide resolution. Given the heavy handed tactics the Turkish government has shown it is willing to use against more powerful foreign nations, he asked his colleagues to imagine the types of intimidation they are using against their own citizens, out of the public spotlight. Assyrian Priest's Arrest Included in State Department Human Rights Report. In a related matter, the State Department's recently released annual human rights report on Turkey included information on the arrest of Father Yusuf Akbulut, an Assyrian priest charged with inciting "racial and sectarian hatred" for mentioning the Armenian Genocide in an interview with Turkey's Hurriyet newspaper. An ANCA grassroots campaign initiated in December of last year urged individuals to call on the State Department to formally protest Father Akbulut's unfair arrest and prosecution to the State Department. In a departure from past practice, the State Department's report included mention of the Armenian Genocide, in a sentence describing the circumstances of Father Yusuf's arrest, without prefacing the term with words such as "alleged" or using evasive or euphemistic terminology. The section dealing with this matter reads as follows: "In October a Syriac priest was charged under Article 312 for 'inciting religious, racial and sectarian hatred' for comments he made to the media about legislation under consideration at that time by the U.S. Congress that referred to Armenian genocide. The trial of the priest, who spoke in favor of the legislation, began in December. He spent one night under arrest but otherwise has been free to continue his pastoral duties." The full text of the State Department's human rights report on Turkey can be found at the following world wide web address: <http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/eur/index.cfm?docid=844>http://w ww.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/eur/index.cfm?docid=844 Additional information can on both the Akin Birdal and the Father Akbulut cases can be obtained by contacting Acting Assistant Secretary for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor: The Hon. Michael E. Parmly; Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor; U.S. Department of State; 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520. Tel: (202) 647-2126. Fax: (202) 647-5283

Azerbaijani, Artsax Officials Issue Statements on Massacre Anniversary BAKU, Feb 28, 2001 -- (RFE/RL) In a statement to mark the anniversary of the massacre of several hundred Azerbaijanis in the Artsax village of Khodjaly in 1992, Azerbaijan's President Heidar Aliev criticized then President Ayaz Mutalibov for failing to take measures to prevent those deaths, Interfax and dpa reported. Aliev also criticized the international community for what he termed its failure to condemn the killings. Meanwhile Vahram Atanesian, chairman of the Standing Foreign Relations Commission of the Artsax parliament, issued a statement which Noyan Tapan circulated on 26 February. Atanesian said that the Artsax Armenian authorities had given Mutalibov advance warning that they intended to try to neutralize Azerbaijani weapons emplacements in Khodjaly and had announced that a corridor would be opened to allow the civilian population to leave Khodjaly before that offensive began. Atanesian said that it was armed detachments of the Azerbaijan Popular Front who killed the Khodjaly villagers, not Armenian and Russian troops as Baku claims.

PRESS RELEASE YerPhI Cosmic Ray Division Hovhannes Vardanian, PR Representative 2 Alikhanian brothers 375036 Yerevan, Armenia Tel/Fax: 1-603-415 23 59 Email: john@crdlx5.yerphi.am CRD Press release CRDPR-012 February 26, 2000 Yerevan, Armenia The Cosmic Ray Division (CRD) of Yerevan Physics Institute has issued its annual report on its research activities during the past year, and is offering attractive business opportunities based on CRD developed technologies. This week the CRD made available its Annual Report for year 2000. The report provides a detailed account of its research activities, and demonstrates the results of major scientific achievements by the division this past year. The three main areas of CRD 's research are Space Weather Studies (Forecasting of Extreme Solar Radiation Storms), Galactic Cosmic Ray Studies, and New Methods of Data Analysis in Cosmic Ray Astrophysics. Promising results from CRD's research opens opportunities for the commercialization of CRD's wide technological capabilities, as aptly demonstrated in three business partnership proposals; Space Weather Forecasting, Genetic Data Analysis, and CRD's Neural Network Toolbox. The CRD is offering its Space Weather forcasting service to public utilities and research organizations in which the occurance of Solar storms can have adverse affects on terrestrial and spaceborne equipment. CRD's pioneering work in data analysis is currently being applied to the analysis of massive amounts of data derived from DNA microarrays. The CRD is offering its services to researchers in the field of medicine, bioengineering and genetic analysis. The Neural Network Toolbox, developed by the CRD for use in analyzing cosmic ray and other astrophysical data, is also useful for applications in various fields in industry, medicine and management. The CRD is ready to offer its expertise to users in various fields in industry and science. Documents on the above products and services are available upon request from CRD Office at 2 Alikhanian brothers St. or online from the CRD website at http://crdlx5.yerphi.am/news For more information please contact Prof. Ashot Chilingarian (Head of the CRD): mailto:chili@amsun.yerphi.am Contact information: CRD 2 Alikhanian St., 375036 Yerevan, Armenia phone/fax: 374-1-352041

quote:Originally posted by dragon: Dear MJ, Many thanks for your postings. They were great! For a moment I felt myself visiting MADENATARAN of Yerevan... ROSLIN is my favourite. I am glad you liked it. I am sure you would not spare any efforts to make your visit enjoyable on a reciprocal basis.

Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory was founded in 1946 on the initiative of academician V.A.Ambartsumian, who became the first director of the observatory and main directions of astrophysical investigations were determined by him. First studies at the Byurakan Observatory related with the instability phenomena taking place in the Universe and this trend became the main characteristic of the science activity in Byurakan. H.S.Badalian, B.E.Markarian, R.H.Sahakian, G.A.Gurzadian, L.V.Mirzoyan, N.L.Ivanova, V.A.Sanamian, M.A.Arakelian, E.Ye.Khachikian, K.H.Grigorian were among the first astronomers, who began their scientific life with the observatory and continued it for many years. In 1946 "Communications of the Byurakan Observatory" were founded as the main journal for Byurakan astronomers. The building works began in the spring of 1946 under the supervision of famous architect Samvel Safarian. The first structures were the central building, hotel and the towers of the first astronomical instruments: 5-inch double astrograph, 8/12-inch Schmidt telescope, 10-inch telescope-spectrograph, nebular spectrograph, 16-inch Cassegrain telescope and 21/21-inch Schmidt telescope. They were built up in 1951-55. The 21/21-inch telescope was the main instrument for those years, being used for the investigation of structure and radiation properties of galaxies. Since 1950 works on construction of radiotelescopes began. Two symphase antennas for observations on 4.2 m wavelength and two symphase antennas for 1.5 m wavelength were constructed. In 1950-51 the laboratories of instrument-making, radioastrophysics, stellar astronomy and spectroscopy, as well as observatory's library were organized. In September 19, 1956 the official opening of the Byurakan Observatory was celebrated by holding a conference on non-stable stars. J.Greenstein, G.Herbig, G.Haro, E.Schatzman, P.L.Kapitza, B.V.Kukarkin, V.V.Sobolev, and other prominent scientists were among the guests. In 1947 stellar systems of new type - stellar associations were discovered by V.A.Ambartsumian. It was proved that at present star-forming processes are going on in the Universe, stars are being formed by groups. Ambartsumian put forward an idea of star-forming in stellar associations together with gas and dust. In the mid-50s Ambartsumian gave a new explanation for radiogalaxies radiation and proposed a new conception on the activity of galactic nuclei. By the time, it was accepted by all the international astronomical community and at present most of the astrophysical observatories have this subject as one of their main. The discovery of stellar associations and Ambartsumian's idea about activity of galactic nuclei in mid-1950s, as well as investigations on radiation transfer theory, based on Ambartsumian's principle of invariance, elucidated the further development of the Byurakan Observatory's research activities. In 1960 a new Schmidt telescope with 40-inch correcting plate and 52-inch mirror was installed in Byurakan. Soon, in 1965 B.E.Markarian started a survey with a goal of revealing of UV-excess galaxies. It was continued for 15 years and became one of the most famous surveys in modern astronomy. As a result, 1500 galaxies with UV-excess, called now Markarian galaxies, were discovered. Byurakan Schmidt is one of the largest and one of the most efficient Schmidt telescopes in the world. In 1964 and 1971 conferences on extraterrestrial civilizations were held. In 1965 an all-Union astrophysical journal, "Astrophysics" was founded, and Byurakan astronomers began to publish their papers mainly in it. IAU Symposium No.29 in 1966 on non-stable phenomena in galaxies, will remain as one of the most interesting events during the history of the observatory. J.Oort, F.Zwicky, G.Burbidge, E.Burbidge, M.Schmidt, and many other well-known scientists were present. In 1968, for its great merit to the development of science the Byurakan Observatory was awarded the highest prize of the Soviet Union - Lenin Order. A conference was held, devoted to V.A.Ambartsumian's jubilee. Beginning with the late 60s, one of the main subjects of the Byurakan Observatory became the investigation of flare stars. Hundreds of flare stars in star clusters and associations were discovered by L.V.Mirzoyan and colleagues. Early stages of evolution of dwarf non-stable stars were investigated. The installation of 2.6 m telescope was rather important event in the observatory's life. The opening of the telescope in 1976 was accompanied by a symposium on flare stars. In 1978 the Second Byurakan Survey was started. The main goal was to obtain homogeneous sample of quasars and galaxies for further cosmological investigations. In 1980s two IAU symposia were organized in Byurakan: Symposium No. 121 on observational evidences of activity in galaxies (1986) and No. 137 on flare stars (1989). In 1986 the research divisions were abolished and small research groups were formed for more efficient scientific work. The divisions were re-established in 1995 and exist together with groups, each including a few of them. In 1988 V.A.Ambartsumian retired from the position of director of the observatory, and E.Ye.Khachikian occupied it. In 1993-94 H.A.Harutyunian was the acting director, and in 1994 A.R.Petrosian became the director. Due to obtained results the Byurakan Observatory is recognized by the scientific community as one of the main centers for astrophysical researches. The conceptions and ideas proposed in Byurakan have found their further elaboration in many observatories, the new objects discovered in Byurakan are observed in the world by famous astrophysicists. Byurakan astronomers have participated in all large international astronomical meetings: International Astronomical Union (IAU) General Assemblies, Symposia, Colloquia. Many of them are members of different IAU Commissions, V.A.Ambartsumian was IAU president in 1961-64 and vice-president in 1948-55, B.E.Markarian and E.Ye.Khachikian have been the presidents of IAU Commission No.28 ("Galaxies") each for 3 years. The prestige of the Byurakan Observatory was enhanced by the many-years fruitful research work and is on high level during its 50 years history. Many international scientific meetings are held in Byurakan and dozens of astronomical institutions all over the world collaborate with the Byurakan Observatory. Nobel Prize laureates Pablo Neruda, Subrahmanian Chandrasekhar, Charles Towns, Francis Krik, Freeman Dyson and Tomonaga, outstanding scientists J.Oort, F.Zwicky, J.Greenstein, G.Herbig, G.Haro, B.Bok, E.Burbidge, G.Burbidge, M.Schmidt, P.L.Kapitza, V.M.Keldish, Y.B.Zeldovich, V.L.Ginzburg and many others and other honorary guests have visited the Byurakan Observatory to make the acquaintance of famous astronomical center, study its scientific program, to discuss different scientific problems with Byurakan astronomers and to take part in joint investigations. http://bao.sci.am/

The Yerevan Physics Institute (YerPhI) ANDREJ YESSIN "Yerevan Physics Institute is a splendid receptacle of treasures used for a better understanding of life and, possibly, for deception of death. I am ravished with everybody who works here". WILLIAM SAROYAN The Yerevan Physics Institute (http://www.yerphi.am), the major scientific centre and the cradle of experimental nuclear physics in Armenia, was founded in 1942 by brothers Abraham Alikhanov and Artem Alikhanian on the base of the research expedition to Mt. Aragats, the highest peak in Armenia, aimed to study cosmic rays. This happened at the height of the Stalingrad Battle, when there were some speculations that the mysteries of cosmic rays might open some way to the progress in the development of atomic problem. So, in this early period the activities of the Institute were directed at the study of the nature and composition of cosmic rays, coming from the universe. Later on two high-altitude stations were founded on the slopes of the mountain: Nor Amberd (2000 m) and Aragats (3250 m). Till now both these internationally recognized stations are under active operation. A good number of fundamental scientific results were obtained here. In particular, wide air showers, spectra of cosmic ray protons, muons and electrons at mountain altitudes were studied. A method of measuring extensive air showers was developed here for the first time. This technique later became classical. The study of cosmic ray composition stimulates the search for new particles. Alikhanian's physical institute (its main building at those times in Yerevan is presently occupied by the US Embassy) was full of intellectual activity. In 1967 YerPhI started to operate its basic installation, the Yerevan 6 GeV ring electron accelerator (synchrotron). It was an important landmark in the history of the Institute. This machine for many years served the physicists as a powerful tool for solving the mysteries of the microworld and remains up to now unique in its class in the countries of former USSR and one of the largest in the world. [it should be noted that presently small Armenia enters the dozen of the world countries with both atomic power plant and high-energy accelerator]. The main trends of experimental research with accelerator for a long time were the investigations on fundamental properties of matter. Directions in theoretical and experimental research included high-energy particle physics, physics of accelerators and cosmic rays, applied and computational physics. Gradually the Institute grew into one of the leading accelerator centers in the USSR. It was incorporated into the structure of the USSR Atomic Energy Committee. A number of unique scientific projects was realized during the years of accelerator operation. The results of studies on the structure and properties of hadrons and nuclear systems, nature of charged particle radiation in various matters, as well as some other methodical developments are well known to the international scientific community. Thus, in 1970 a group from YerPhI received the Lenin Prize, the highest scientific tribute in the USSR, for the development of track spark chambers. In 1980, another group from YerPhI was awarded the Armenian State Prize for the study of basic properties of particles and nuclei in meson photoproduction processes on nuclei. Presently, the main activity of the Institute is the basic research in high-energy and particle physics, as well in some applied fields and industrial areas. Synchrotron radiation and other radiation technologies were applied to the problems of solid state physics, biology, space research, agriculture and some other fields. There is a keen Theoretical Department at the Institute, where a number of successful results were obtained on quantum chromodynamics, nuclear interactions, quantum field theory, superstrings and the interaction of radiation with matter. In 1990 the staff of YerPhI was numbered as more than 3000 employees. In these years international scientific contacts were established and gave good results, received at the installations both in Yerevan and abroad. The main partners since these times remain Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron - DESY (Hamburg), Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility - TJNAF, former CEBAF (Virginia), European Laboratory for Particle Physics - CERN (Geneva) and Joint Institute for Nuclear Research - JINR (near Moscow). For the high energy physics community such abbreviations as ATLAS, CMS, ALICE, H1, HERMES, TESLA, KASCADE, HEGRA do not need additional explanation. All these are the names of the most active international projects, where YerPhI scientists are involved. Several laboratories, besides doing fundamental physics, are actively busy with different applied research using existing scientific potential. In particular, they are turning various electron linear accelerators into instruments for different scientific and industrial areas (crystallography, cryogenics, medicine, biophysics, cable industry, diamond synthesis, material modification, etc). Computer Centre of YerPhI is one of the best technically equipped and modern in Armenia. Computer and network operation, system programming, application development, engineering and technical support - are the main tasks of the staff. The most spectacular item in 90-ies was the installation (with the help of DESY) of the satellite link that gave YerPhI an access to the global information systems. Now CC serves the local network of YerPhI, runs Metropolitan Area Network, including most scientific and educational institutes of Yerevan. YerPhI has developed workshops for pilot production, where the details of scientific devices and some industrial articles are produced. The plastic scintillators for charged particle registration, proposed and developed here awarded a Gold Medal at Leipzig Fair. Nor Amberd Conference Centre of YerPhI is located at 35 km far from Yerevan on a picturesque slope of Mt. Aragats, 2000 m high above sea level. It often becomes the site for numerous conferences, symposia and workshops. Soon after Armenia gained independence from the USSR it became practically impossible (mainly due to the high cost of electricity) to do even little experimental physics in Yerevan. The accelerator was not operated for about 7 years. The last experiment at synchrotron was carried out in 1998, when the accelerator was brought back in action. Besides new scientific results it gave an understanding of the fact that the machine itself was preserved in the runable condition and the main bone of the personnel remained with the Institute in spite of greatly underfinanced budget and miserable salaries. The hard situation with own experimental facilities became the reason of tremendous and practically deliberate growth of collaboration with the physical centers abroad. Presently the Institute participates in about 50 international projects (half of them with German participation) almost in all fields of its research program and collaborates with many nuclear centers in the world, including those of main developed countries. For example, in Germany YerPhI collaborates on bilateral level with the colleagues from Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Berlin, Heidelberg, Munich, Kiel, Kaiserslautern and Wurzburg, besides Armenian physicists participate in international experiments hand by hand with the partners from Bonn, Darmstadt, Frankfurt, Marburg, Munster, Erlangen, Freiburg, Mainz, Aachen, Dortmund, Wuppertal, Zeuthen and Bochum. The dynamics of visitors from YerPhI to the centres abroad may be obviously presented with the example of Germany: 1996 - 35, 1997 - 44, 1998 - 51, 1999 - 55, 2000 - 66 (without counting those, who work in Germany already for several years). So they were able to contribute by their education, experience and skills to the field of fundamental science. Just as a bright example of successful cooperation in the past few years NA50 joint experiment at CERN may be mentioned, where Armenian physicists together with the rest of a large team within Heavy Ion Programme for the first time observed compelling evidence for the existence of a new state of matter - quark-gluon plasma. This fundamental result was treated not only in scientific periodicals, but also in such information sources as New York Times, Washington Post, Spiegel, BBC, CNN, etc. The exhibition "Licht der Zukunft" (Light for the New Millennium) demonstrated at Hamburg during June-October, 2000 in the frames of EXPO 2000 and attended by 106,000 visitors presented unique X-ray laser and other highlights of DESY's basic research with wide international contribution. The good evidence of that was an Armenian flag fluttering at the entrance to the exhibition. Presently the staff of YerPhI consists of about 300 physicists, 400 engineers and technicians and 300 workers of supporting personnel. Since 1992 the Institute is structurally in the Armenian Ministry for Industry and Trade. The Directors of YerPhI from the time of its foundation were Academician Artem Alikhanian (1943-1973)*, Academician Andrej Amatuni (1973-1992) and Professor Ruben Mkrtchyan (from 1992). Still, the difficulties for scientists and researchers in Armenia are very real. Today, due to serious economical difficulties Armenia by itself cannot support fundamental research. 70% of the funding for today's projects come from international organizations such as International Science and Technology Center (ISTC), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Science Programme, International Association for the promotion of cooperation with the Scientists from the NIS of the former SU (INTAS), the European Union, US Civilian Research and Development Foundation (CRDF), although these grants are small and the competition for the money is very stiff. In spite of all difficulties YerPhI as before has an essential influence upon the development of the creative scientific and technical potential of the Republic. Here the words of Edelgard Bulmahn, German Federal Minister for Education and Research, may be recalled: "Physics occupies a unique place in the pantheon of the natural sciences… It is the driving force behind the ceaseless quest to uncover the mysteries of the origin of the universe. Without physics, there would be no information society. Without physics, there would be no chance of ensuring sustainable development on our planet." The Directorate and all the personnel of YerPhI with great inspiration accepted the proposal to join a new large project SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East) under the umbrella of UNESCO to encourage regional cooperation in science. The project was generated by a gift of the BESSY-1 synchrotron (Berlin) by German Government to the Middle East and neighbouring countries. The new international centre with such a machine is aimed to concentrate and develop the research activities using synchrotron radiation for surface and interface science, micro-electromechanical devices, X-ray imaging, structural molecular biology, environmental science, archaeological microanalysis, materials characterization, and medical applications. Armenia entered SESAME Consortium alongside with 10 other countries in 1999. Besides the corresponding site proposal from Armenia based on the expertise and availability the infrastructure of YerPhI was presented to the SESAME Interim Council. In April 2000 after long and extensive discussions on the technical, political and financial considerations and by a series of votes out of 9 conquerors Jordan was selected as the first choice site and Armenia as its second choice. Finally, the November 2000 Interim Council Meeting decided to install synchrotron radiation sources both in Jordan and Armenia. For Armenian part of the project US Congress appropriated $ 15 mln specifically in 2001, while Armenian Diaspora promised another $ 15 millions. Now it is right time when the specialists should display their scientific and technical experience and activity in forthcoming preparatory measures. Now, when the Law on Scientific and Technical Activity was recently adopted by the Armenian Parliament, the Institute is seen in future sooner with the status of National Scientific Centre (it will be the optimal solution), just as in many other countries, or National Scientific Foundation, like e.g. DESY, the German Electron-Synchrotron in Hamburg (founded as an independent foundation under civil law). Joint-Stock status will be unacceptable because its profits extracting character will sharply contradict the goals of scientific centre, while the status of Foundation gives the Institute the rights of juridical party and the possibility to benefit from its own economic activity if the profit is forwarded to the main scientific programmes. This brief information may be concluded by the remark of Robert Kocharian after his visit to the Institute: "I hope, I am even sure that YerPhI will overcome all difficulties and will find its adequate place in this changing world. I will do my best to be useful." __________________________________________________________________ *) Recently a book "A. Alikhanian. Essays, Recollections, Documents" (Ed. by G. Merzon. Moscow, 2000, 335 pp., 61 pics, softcover) was published. It is devoted to the famous scientist, sophisticated and cultured personality, the founder and first Director of YerPhI, academician Artem Alikhanian (1908-1978). ANDREJ YESSIN Department of Information & International Relations, Yerevan Physics Institute, Yerevan, Armenia E-Mail: intern@uniphi.yerphi.am

PRESS RELEASE YerPhI Cosmic Ray Division Hovhannes Vardanian, PR Representative 2 Alikhanian brothers 375036 Yerevan, Armenia Tel/Fax: 1-603-415 23 59 Email: john@crdlx5.yerphi.am Report on Cosmic Ray Division project, Cosmic Ray Division a success… The CRD The Cosmic Ray Division (CRD) of the Yerevan Physics Institute was founded in 1942. Since then it has become one of the world's premier research institutes in the field of solar and cosmic ray research. The CRD maintains two observatories on Mt. Aragats in Armenia as well as its headquarters in Yerevan. Since Armenia's independence in 1991, despite energy and food shortages and the collapse of the Armenian economy, the CRD has continued to produce world class research and has honored its research agreements with foreign partners. The CRD is one of the few internationally renowned scientific institutions in Armenia and the former Soviet Union to have survived the upheavals of the nineties while continuing to meet the future with an uncompromised commitment to scientific excellence. Their technical expertise, determination and forward looking leadership have allowed them to persevere against all odds and to contribute towards the solution of practical problems in fields as diverse as solar weather forecasting and medicine. Armenia's economic future and security depends on utilizing the intellectual power and talent of its people. Our future, in world of rapidly changing technology, requires that Armenia maintain its expertise in a broad range of scientific disciplines and continue its participation in international scientific forums. Year 2000 Accomplishments During the year 2000 the CRD registered a number of accomplishments. New muon and neutron particle detectors were installed at its observatories on Mt. Aragats. A program was commenced to establish a solar storm warning system to alert CRD's customers of impending disturbances. A number of international conferences were held at CRD's facilities. On June 22 the CRD announced its membership in the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), the leading international scientific organization dedicated to research in this field. Seven Armenian physicists from the CRD participated in the 26th Cosmic Ray Conference in Dubna, Russia from July 3-7. CRD's presentations focused on acceleration mechanisms of high energy Cosmic Rays, issues of space weather forecasting and advanced data acquisition and online data access. These presentations positioned the CRD in the forefront of modern cosmic ray science. On July 14 intense solar radiation triggered the strongest geomagnetic storm since 1989. The radiation was closely monitored by CRD's two observatories on Mt. Aragats which recorded this event in unprecedented detail. The International Workshop on Neural Networks, with participants from Armenia, Germany, Iran and U.S.A. gathered at the Yerevan Physics Institute to discuss promising new developments for complex data analysis. One of the most interesting aspects of this year's workshop was the demonstration of the ANI software package for analysis of multivariate stochastic data which was developed at the Cosmic Ray Division in Armenia. On October 19 the CRD announced that a collaborative research project had been established with the Huntsman Cancer Institute at the University of Utah. This project will apply new statistical data analysis and software methods developed by the CRD to cancer research, potentially enhancing our ability to find a cure for this disease. But Success is Threatened The ultimate outcome of this Armenian success story is jeopardized by a crisis in financial support. Research partnerships bring in over $120,000 in research funding from the United States, France, Germany, Japan and other nations. The CRD, however, has relied on the Armenian government for about $40,000 annually to meet certain subsistence needs such as fuel and electricity which are not covered by outside funding. The Armenian Government was not able to meet this obligation for year 2000 and will not do so in the future. Without this funding the CRD will not be able to continue its participation in the international arena, thus potentially losing the $120,000 funding from outside sources. The CRD Support Committee The CRD Support Committee was formed in March 2000 in response to the above crisis. Members are: Anahid Yeremian, a physicist at the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC) in California; Tanya Bresinsky, a science librarian at MIT in Massachusetts; and Joseph Dagdigian, an engineer at Avici Systems in Massachusetts. The goal of the CRD Support Committee is to give the CRD the baseline support it needs over the next 3-5 years as it makes the transition to financial independence, thus preserving one of Armenia's finest scientific institutions. The committee, with generous financial and administrative support from individual contributors, the Armenian National Science and Education Fund (ANSEF)/Fund for Armenian Relief (FAR), and the Armenian Scientists and Engineers of America (AESA), has raised over $25,000 in year 2000. The CRD Support Committee wishes to thank the above mentioned organizations and the many individual contributors for their support. Prof. Chilingarian, the head of the CRD, in a year end letter to the committee expressed the profound thanks of the CRD to all its supporters for their generosity and help in making this a successful year. The Future With help from the diaspora, the CRD and Armenia can have a bright scientific future. Forty thousand dollars from the diaspora enables the CRD to gain revenues of over $120,000 from research partners. In coming years revenues from outside sources are expected to increase. This revenue allows 80-100 highly experienced and motivated scientists, engineers and staff to stay in Armenia, to continue performing world class research in Armenia and to represent Armenia in the international scientific community. For more information please check the CRD Support Committee's web site at http://www.geocities.com/hyecrd, or call: Joe Dagdigian at (978) 964-2270 or (978) 772-9417; Anahid Yeremian at (650) 926-4444; or Tanya Bresinsky at (617) 923-6242. You may also write to us at: CRD Support Committee, Box 566, Harvard, MA 01451. Cosmic Ray Division Support Committee January 2001

The Yerevan Physics Institute ( initially it was just called the Physics Institute ) was founded in 1942 as a branch of Yerevan State University. A year later it was turned over to the Armenian Academy of Sciences. The Institute was founded because of the scientific missions of two brothers, academicians Abraham Alikhanov and Artem Alikhanian to Mt. Aragats, the highest peak in Armenia. The aim of these expeditions was to study cosmic rays. Later on two high-altitude cosmic ray stations were founded on the slope of the mountain: Aragats (3250m) and Nor Amberd (2000m). A good number of fundamental results were obtained here. Proton and neutron components as well as narrow air showers were discovered. A method of measuring extensive air showers was developed here for the first time. This technique later became classical. The Alikhanov - Alikhanian mass spectrometer became the prototype for hodoscopic devices that have played a major role in nuclear physics research.The study of cosmic ray composition using the mass spectrometer stimulated the search for new particles. The results obtained at Aragats showed the existence of rather energetic particles as a component of cosmic rays. This finding was later recognized as a discovery ( USSR license No. 384). In 1963 the Institute was transferred to the USSR State Committee on Atomic Energy and became the Yerevan Physics Institute (YerPhI). The construction of an electron accelerator at 6GeV accomplished in 1967 became an important landmark in the history of the Institute. The Yerevan synchrotron was at that time one of the largest in the world and remains the largest in CIS countries to date. The accelerator served the physicists of YerPhI as a powerful tool for solving the mysteries of the microworld. A number of unique scientific results were obtained during the years of accelerator operation. The study of pion photoproduction; eta-meson generation using the unique source of polarized gamma-quanta obtained at YerPhI; investigation of the nature and properties of transition radiation and channeling radiation in single crystals as well as some other results are well-known to the international scientific community. In 1980, a group at YerPhI was awarded the Armenian State Prize for work on the basic properties of particles and nuclei studied in meson photoproduction processes on nuclei. Traditionally the development of new experimental methods has had an important place in the Institute's scientific program. In 1970 a group from YerPhi was awarded the Lenin Prize, the highest tribute in the USSR, for the development of track spark chambers. Synchrotron radiation and other radiation technologies were applied to problems in solid state physics, biology, space research, agriculture and some other fields. In the middle of the 80's, in collaboration with physicists and engineers from Moscow, YerPhI started the realization of the ANI project which was aimed at the study of cosmic radiation particles and nuclei interactions at superaccelerator energies using the world largest installations. The disintegration of the Soviet Union and further economic problems halted the completion of the project. There is a keen Theoretical Department at the Institute, where a number of successful results were obtained on QCD, nuclear interactions, quantum field theory, superstrings and the interaction of radiation with matter. A powerful Computer Centre (CC) is equipped with a satellite communication unit. CC serves the local network (more than 50 ports with access to the Internet in 5 buildings ) as well as radio-modem connection (together with the National Academy of Sciences) with 4 more ports (Inst. of Radiophysical Measurements, National Academy of Sciences, Inst. of Informatics and Automation, Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory) which are in turn connected to other institutes via telephone lines. In the near future it is intended to connect YerPhI with some other centres (Yerevan State University, American University of Armenia, Yerevan Medical Institute et al). YerPhI has developed workshops for pilot production, where the details of scientific devices and industrial production are produced. For its more than half a century history, the Institute has accumulated a rich experience of contacts with international and national laboratories abroad in almost all the fields of its scientific activity. Presently, the Institute is involved in collaboration with the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (former CEBAF), Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) as well as with colleagues from France, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Ireland, Bulgaria, Denmark and Israel. All these joint works are of mutual interest. From 1992 YerPhI was turned over to the Armenian Ministry of Industry.

The Second Crusade It had long been apparent that Edessa was vulnerable, but its loss came as a shock to Christians both East and West. Urgent pleas for aid soon reached Europe, and Pope Eugenius III in 1145 issued a formal crusade bull, the first of its kind, with precisely worded provisions designed to protect crusaders' families and property and reflecting contemporary advances in canon law. Legates were designated. The Crusade, energetically supported by Louis VII, was preached by St. Bernard of Clairvaux in France and, with interpreters, even in Germany. As in the First Crusade, many simple noncombatant pilgrims responded. But, since Emperor Conrad III, though at first reluctant to leave Germany, had been won over by Bernard's eloquence, the Second Crusade, unlike the First, was led by two of Europe's major rulers. The situation in the East was also different. Manuel Comnenus was favourably disposed toward the West and, because of his interest in Antioch, was concerned over the power of Zangi, the Muslim ruler of Aleppo. He was able to assist the crusaders with guides and supplies but contributed no troops. In anticipation of the arrival of the western armies and more aware than they of the delicate power balance in the Levant, he had made peace with the Seljuqs of Iconium in 1146. Above all, Manuel was alarmed by the possibility of an attack by Roger II, the Norman king of Sicily. Conrad left in May 1147, accompanied by many German nobles, the Kings of Poland and Bohemia, and Frederick of Swabia, his nephew and heir. On leaving Hungary and entering Byzantine territory, he agreed to an oath of noninjury. Conrad's poorly disciplined troops created tension with the Byzantines in Constantinople, where they arrived in September. Both Conrad and Manuel, however, remained on good terms, and both were apprehensive about the moves of Roger of Sicily, who during these same weeks seized Corfu and attacked the Greek mainland. Conrad, rejecting Manuel's advice to follow the coastal route around Asia Minor, moved his main force past Nicaea directly into Anatolia. On October 25, at Dorylaeum, not far from the place where the first crusaders won their victory, his army, weary and without adequate provisions, was set upon by the Turks and virtually destroyed. Conrad, with a few survivors, retreated to Nicaea. Meanwhile, about a month behind the Germans, Louis VII, accompanied by his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, followed the land route across Europe and arrived at Constantinople on October 4. A few of his more hotheaded followers, on hearing that Manuel had made a truce with the Turks of Iconium and totally misunderstanding the motives, accused the Emperor of treason and urged the French king to join Roger in attacking the Byzantine emperor. Louis preferred the opinion of his less volatile advisers and agreed to restore any imperial possessions he might capture. In November the French reached Nicaea, where they learned of Conrad's defeat. Louis and Conrad then started along the coastal route, the French now in the van, and reached Ephesus. Conrad became seriously ill and returned to Constantinople to the medical ministrations of Manuel. He eventually reached Acre by ship in April 1148. The French passage from Ephesus to Antioch in midwinter was harrowing in the extreme. Supplies ran short, and the Byzantines were blamed. But Antioch was finally reached in March 1148, and the crusaders were welcomed by Prince Raymond, Queen Eleanor's uncle. Raymond urged an attack on Aleppo, the centre of power of Nureddin, son and successor of Zangi. But King Louis, who resented Eleanor's open espousal of Raymond's project, left abruptly for Jerusalem and forced the Queen to join him. At Jerusalem, where Conrad had already arrived, a brilliant assembly of French and German notables assembled with Queen Melisend, her son Baldwin III, and the barons of Jerusalem to discuss how best to proceed. Despite the absence of the northern princes and the losses already suffered by the crusaders, it was possible to field an army of nearly 50,000 men, the largest Crusade army so far assembled. After considerable debate, which revealed the conflicting purposes of crusaders and Jerusalem barons, it was decided to attack Damascus. How the decision was reached is not known. Damascus was undoubtedly a tempting prize, but Unur, the Turkish commander, also fearful of the expanding power of Nureddin and the one Muslim ruler most disposed to cooperate with the Franks, was now forced to seek the aid of his former enemy. And Nureddin was not slow to move toward Damascus. Not only was the campaign mistakenly conceived, it was badly executed. On July 28, after a five-day siege, with Nureddin's forces nearing the city, it became evident that the crusader army was dangerously exposed, and a retreat was ordered. It was a humiliating failure, attributable largely to the conflicting interests of the participants. Conrad left immediately and stopped at Constantinople, where he agreed to join the Emperor against Roger of Sicily. Louis's reaction was different. His resentment against Manuel, whom he blamed for the failure, was so great that he accepted Roger's offer of ships to take him home and agreed to a plan for a new Crusade against Byzantium. Fortunately the plan was soon abandoned. The Second Crusade had been promoted with great zeal and had aroused high hopes. Its collapse caused deep dismay, and subsequent expeditions, perhaps wisely, were more limited in their objectives. The Muslims, on the other hand, were enormously encouraged. They had confronted the danger of another major Western expedition and had triumphed over it. The crusader states to 1187 During the 25 years following the Second Crusade the Kingdom of Jerusalem was governed by two of its ablest rulers, Baldwin III and Amalric I. In 1153 King Baldwin captured Ascalon--the last major conquest of the Franks. The victory extended their coastline southward. But its possession was offset in the next year by the occupation of Damascus by Nureddin, one more stage in the encirclement of the crusader states by a single Muslim power. In 1160-61 the possibility that the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt, shaken by palace intrigues and assassinations, might collapse and fall under the influence of Muslim Syria caused anxiety in Jerusalem. Thus, in 1164, when Nureddin sent his lieutenant Shirkuh to Egypt accompanied by his own nephew, Saladin, King Amalric decided to intervene. After some manoeuvring, both armies withdrew, as they were to do again three years later. Meanwhile, Amalric, realizing the necessity of Byzantine cooperation, had sent Archbishop William of Tyre as envoy to Constantinople. But in 1168, before the news of the agreement that William of Tyre had arranged reached Jerusalem, the King set out for Egypt. The reasons are not clear, and there had been considerable division among the barons. At any rate, the venture failed, and Shirkuh entered Cairo. On his death (May 23, 1169), Saladin, then Nureddin's deputy, was left to overcome the remaining opposition and master Egypt. When the Byzantine fleet and the army finally arrived in 1169, there was some delay, and both armies were forced by inadequate provisions and seasonal rains to retreat once again, each side blaming the other. In 1171, Saladin obeyed Nureddin's order to have the prayers in the mosques mention the Caliph of Baghdad instead of the Caliph of Cairo, who was then in his final illness. Thus ended the Fatimid caliphate and the great division in Levantine Islam from which the Latins had profited. Ominous developments followed the deaths of both Amalric and Nureddin in 1174. In 1176 the Seljuqs of Iconium defeated the armies of Manuel Comnenus at Myriocephalon. It was a shattering blow reminiscent of Manzikert a century earlier. When Manuel died in 1180, all hope of effective Byzantine-Latin cooperation vanished. Three years later Saladin occupied Aleppo, virtually completing the encirclement of the Latin states. In 1185 he agreed to a truce and left for Egypt. In Jerusalem, Amalric was succeeded by his son Baldwin IV, a boy of 13 suffering from leprosy. Despite the young king's extraordinary fortitude, his precarious health necessitated occasional regencies and created a problem of succession until his sister Sibyl bore a son, the future Baldwin V, to William of Montferrat. Her marriage in 1180 to Guy of Lusignan, a newcomer to the East and brother of Amalric, the constable, accentuated existing rivalries among the barons. A kind of "court party" centring around the queen mother, Agnes of Courtenay, her daughter Sibyl, and Agnes' brother, Joscelin III, and now including the Lusignans was often opposed by another group composed mostly of the so-called native barons--old families, notably the Ibelins, Reginald of Sidon, and Raymond III of Tripoli, who through his wife was also lord of Tiberias. In addition to these internal problems, the kingdom was more isolated than ever. Urgent appeals to the West and the efforts of Pope Alexander III had brought little response. Baldwin IV died in March 1185, leaving, according to previous agreement, Raymond of Tripoli as regent for the child king Baldwin V. But when Baldwin V died in 1186 the court party outmanoeuvred the other barons and, disregarding succession arrangements that had been formally drawn up, hastily crowned Sibyl. She in turn crowned her husband, Guy of Lusignan. In the midst of near civil war, Reginald of Châtillon, lord of Kerak and Montréal, broke the truce by attacking a caravan. Saladin replied by proclaiming jihad against the Latin kingdom. In 1187 Saladin left Egypt, crossed the Jordan south of the Sea of Galilee, and took up a position near the riverbank. Near Saffuriyah (modern Zippori) the crusaders mobilized an army of perhaps 20,000 men and including some 1,200 heavily armed cavalry, probably the equal of Saladin's. In a spot well chosen and adequately supplied with water and provisions, they awaited Saladin's first move. On July 2 Saladin blocked the main road to Tiberias and sent a small force to attack the town, hoping, since Count Raymond's wife was there, to lure the crusaders into the open. Nevertheless, it was Raymond who at first persuaded the King not to fall into the trap. But, late that night, others, accusing the Count of treason, prevailed upon the King to change his mind. It was a fateful decision. For, after an exhausting day's march on July 3, a terrible night spent without water, surrounded and constantly harassed, and a long day of fighting near the Horns of Hattin on July 4 with smoke from grass fires set by the enemy pouring into their faces, the foot soldiers broke and fled, destroying the essential coordination with the cavalry. When Saladin's final charge ended the battle, most of the knights had been slain or captured. Only Raymond of Tripoli, Reginald of Sidon, Balian of Ibelin, and a few others escaped. The King's life was spared, but Saladin killed Reginald of Châtillon and ordered the execution of some 200 Templars and Hospitallers. Other captive knights were treated honourably, and most were later ransomed. Less fortunate were the foot soldiers, most of whom were sold into slavery. Virtually the entire military force of the Kingdom of Jerusalem had been destroyed. Saladin quickly followed up his victory at Hattin. Pausing only to take Tiberias, he moved toward the coast and seized Acre. By September 1187 he and his lieutenants had occupied most of the major strongholds in the kingdom and all of the ports south of Tripoli, except Tyre, and Jubayl and Botron (al-Batrun) in the County of Tripoli. On October 2, Jerusalem, then defended by only a handful of men under the command of Balian of Ibelin, capitulated to Saladin, who agreed to allow the inhabitants to leave after paying a ransom. Though Saladin offered to release the poor for a specified sum, several thousand apparently were not redeemed and probably were sold into slavery. In Jerusalem, as in most of the cities captured, those who elected to remain were Syrian or Greek Christians. Somewhat later Saladin permitted a number of Jews to settle in the city. Meanwhile, Saladin continued his conquests in the north, and by 1189 all the kingdom was in his hands except Belvoir (modern Kokhov ha-Yarden) and Tyre. The County of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch were each reduced to the capital city and a few outposts. The larger part of the 100-year-old Latin establishment in the Levant had been lost. The institutions of the First Kingdom The four principalities established by the crusaders--three after the loss of Edessa in 1144--were loosely connected, and such limited suzerainty as the king of Jerusalem exercised over the others became largely nominal after the midcentury. Each of the states was organized into a pattern of feudal lordships by the ruling minority. The institutions of the Kingdom of Jerusalem are best known, partly because its history figures more prominently in both Arab and Christian chronicles but especially because its documents were better preserved. In the 13th century there was compiled a collection of laws, the famous Assises de Jérusalem. Though this collection reflects a later situation, certain sections and many individual enactments can be traced back to the 12th century, the period known as the First Kingdom. In the first half of the 12th century the kingdom presented the appearance of a typical feudal monarchy on the European model, with lordships owing military service and subject to fiscal exactions. There were, however, important differences, not only in the large subject population of diverse ethnic origins but also with respect to the governing minority. No great families with extensive domains emerged in the early years. Further, the typical noble's residence was not, as in Europe, the rural castle or manor house. Castles there were, but they were garrisoned by knights and, increasingly as the century advanced, by the religio-military orders. But most Jerusalem barons lived in the fortified towns. The kings, moreover, possessed a considerable domain and retained extensive judicial rights. As a consequence, the monarchy was a relatively strong institution in early Jerusalem. Toward the middle of the century this situation began to change. Partly as a consequence of increased immigration from the west, the baronial class grew, and there was formed a relatively small group of magnates with large domains. As individuals, they were less disposed to brook royal interference, and as a class and in the court of barons (Haute Cour, or High Court) they were capable of presenting a formidable challenge to royal authority. The last of the kings of Jerusalem to exercise effective power was Amalric I in the 12th century. In the final years of the First Kingdom, baronial influence was increasingly evident and dissension among the barons, as a consequence, more serious. The military orders Another serious obstacle to the king's jurisdiction and one not found, at least in the same form, in the West was the extensive authority of the two religio-military orders. The older of the two, the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, or Hospitallers, was founded in the 11th century by the merchants of Amalfi to provide hospital care for pilgrims. The order never abandoned its original purpose, and, in fact, as its superb collection of documents reveals, the order's philanthropic activities expanded. But during the 12th century, in response to the military needs of the kingdom, the Hospitallers followed the example of the Templars and became, in addition, an order of knights. The Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, so called because of their headquarters in the former temple of Solomon, originated as a monastic-military organization to protect pilgrims on the way to Jerusalem. Its rule, composed by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, was officially sanctioned by the Council of Troyes (1128). Although Templars and Hospitallers took monastic vows, their principal function was soldiering. The orders grew rapidly, and, as they acquired castles at strategic points in the kingdom and in the northern states and maintained permanent garrisons, they supplemented the otherwise not entirely adequate forces of the barons and king. Moreover, since they were soon established in Europe as well, they became international in character. Virtually independent, sanctioned and constantly supported by the papacy, and exempt from local ecclesiastical jurisdiction, they aroused the jealousy of the clergy and constituted a serious challenge to royal authority. The crusaders introduced into the conquered lands a Latin ecclesiastical organization and hierarchy. The Greek patriarch of Antioch was, as has been mentioned, removed, and all the subsequent incumbents were Latin, except for one brief period before 1170, when imperial pressure succeeded in installing a Greek. In Jerusalem the Orthodox patriarch had left before the conquest and died soon after. All his successors were Latin. Under the Latin jurisdiction was the entire Latin population and those natives (Greek in Antioch and Greek or native Syrian [Melchite] in Jerusalem) who had remained Orthodox. Outside was a larger number of Monophysites (Jacobite or Armenian) and some few Nestorians, all adherents of doctrines that had deviated from the decisions of 5th-century ecumenical councils. A number of Maronites of the Lebanon region accepted the Latin obedience late in the 12th century. After some initial confusion, the native hierarchies were able to resume their functions. As in the West, the church had its own courts and possessed large properties. But each ecclesiastical domain was required to furnish soldiers, and the charitable foundations were considerable. The hierarchy of the Latin states was an integral part of the church of the West. Papal legates regularly visited the East, and bishops from the crusader states attended the Third Lateran Council in 1179. Western monastic orders also appeared in the crusader's states. In addition to the nobles and their families who had settled in the kingdom, a substantially larger number of persons was classified as bourgeois. A small number had arrived with the First Crusade, but most were later immigrants from Europe, representing nearly every nationality, but predominantly from rural southern France. In the East they became town dwellers, but a few were agriculturalists, proprietors of small estates, rarely themselves tillers of the soil, inhabiting the more modest towns. Some immigrants, it appears, perhaps poor pilgrims who remained, failed to obtain a reasonably settled status and could not afford the relatively small ransom offered by Saladin in 1187. The townsmen of the First Kingdom did not, like their counterparts in Europe, aspire to political autonomy. There were no communal movements in the 12th century. The bourgeois were, therefore, subject to king or seigneur. Some did military service as sergeants; i.e., mounted auxiliaries or foot soldiers. Bourgeois were recognized as a class in the more than 30 "courts of the bourgeois" according to procedures laid down in the Assises de la cour des bourgeois, which, unlike other parts of the Assises, reflects the traditions of Roman law in southern France. The Italians, because they supplied indispensable naval aid and shipping essential to regular contact with Europe, had been able to acquire exceptional privileges in the ports. These privileges usually included a quarter that they maintained as a virtually independent enclave. Its status guaranteed by treaty between the kingdom and the mother city (Venice, Genoa, Pisa, etc.), the Italian enclave more nearly resembled the modern overseas colony than any other establishment of the crusaders. The European settlers in the crusader states constituted only a small minority of the population. If the early crusaders were ruthless, their successors, except for occasional outbursts during campaigns, acquired not only a remarkable tolerance but also a notable flexibility in dealing with the diverse sectors of the native population. Those Muslim town dwellers who had not fled were captured and put to menial tasks. Some, it is true, appeared in Italian slave marts, but royal and ecclesiastical ordinances at least laid down limits to what slave owners might do. Baptism brought with it immediate freedom. Not all Muslims were slaves. Most of those who remained were peasants who for centuries had constituted a large part of the rural population and who were permitted to retain their holdings, subject to fiscal impositions not unlike those of the European serf, and usually identical with those originally levied by their former proprietors on all non-Muslims. Muslim nomads, or Bedouins, who from time immemorial had moved with their herds as changing seasons provided pasturage, continued to enjoy pasturage rights within the kingdom guaranteed by the king. Most mosques were appropriated during the conquest, but some were restored, and no attempt was made to restrict Muslim religious observance. Occasionally a mihrab (prayer niche) was retained for Muslim worshippers in a church that had formerly been a mosque. The tolerance of the Franks, noted by Arab visitors, often surprised and disturbed newcomers from the West. Legal practices Native Christians, predominantly townsmen, were governed according to the Assises de la cour des bourgeois. Each national group retained its institutions. The Syrians, for example, maintained a cour du rais, the rais (ra'is) being a chieftain and often of importance under the Frankish regime. An important element in the kingdom's army, the corps of Turcopoles, lightly armed cavalry units, was also composed largely of native Christians, including, apparently, converts from Islam. The principle of personality of law applied to all. The Jew took oath on the Torah, the Samaritan on the Pentateuch, the Muslim on the Qur'an, and the Christian on the Gospels. The Jewish community of Palestine, which had already begun to diminish in the 11th century, was drastically reduced by the First Crusade. But gradually, as the Latin kingdom settled into a routine of government, the situation improved. Indeed, there is reason to believe that the later, more stable regime made possible a not inconsiderable Jewish immigration, not, it seems, as in earlier times, from the neighbouring lands of the Middle East, but from Europe. Thus, by the 1170s the crusader states of Outremer, as the area of Latin settlement came to be called, had developed well-established governments. With allowance made for regional differences (e.g., Antioch in its early years under the Norman dynasty was somewhat more centralized), the institutions of the northern states resembled those of Jerusalem. The governing class of Franks was no longer made up of conquerors from abroad but of local residents who had learned to adjust themselves to a new environment and were concerned with administration. A few--as, for example, Reginald of Sidon and William of Tyre, archbishop and chancellor--were fluent in Arabic. Many others knew enough of the language to deal with natives. Franks adopted native dress, ate native food, employed native physicians, and married Syrian, Armenian, or convert-Muslim women. But the Franks of Outremer, though they sometimes acquired a love of luxury and comfort, did not lose the will or ability to confront danger; nor did they "go native." In fundamentals, they continued to adhere to the traditions of their French forebears. They were Latin Christians. Documents were drawn up in Latin. The Assises were in French. William of Tyre, born in the East but educated in Europe, wrote a celebrated History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea in the Latin style of the 12th century. Artists and architects were influenced by Byzantine and Arab craftsmen, but Oriental motifs are usually limited to details, such as doorway carvings. A psalter for Queen Melisend in the 12th century, for example, shows certain Byzantine characteristics, and the artist may have lived in Constantinople, but the manuscript is in the current tradition of French art. Castles followed Byzantine models, often built on the old foundations, but Western ideas were also incorporated. New churches were built or additions made to existing structures, as for example the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in the Romanesque style of the homeland. All in all, the Franks of the First Kingdom were developing a distinctive culture and achieving a sense of identity. Until baronial dissensions weakened the monarchy in later years--a human failing, not a deep cultural maladjustment--the Latin kingdom showed remarkable vitality and ingenuity. It was one of the more sophisticated governmental achievements of the Middle Ages. http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/...+110241,00.html http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/maps/2ndcde.jpg [ February 26, 2001: Message edited by: MJ ]

The First Crusade 1096 Meanwhile a regular army was being organized, of armored knights on horseback, foot soldiers and many servants, priests, a bishop and even pilgrims, including women and children. Each of four units had its leader: Duke Godfrey of Lower Lorraine with Walloon speaking Frenchmen and Rheinlanders, Count Raymond of Toulouse and Bishop Adhemar the bulk being southern Frenchmen, Duke Robert son of William the Conqueror with northern Frenchmen who was joined and superseded in Constantinople by Hugh brother of King Philip of France, and the Norman Bohemond and his nephew Tancred with southern Italians rather well-experienced in battles against both Saracens and the Greek army. Godfrey reached Constantinople in 1096. Raymond, Robert and Bohemond arrived in 1097. Constantinople 1097 What was the Emperor of Constantinople to do with this horde? Before he had an army principally of mercenaries whom he had to pay; now with the Crusaders he had a "free" army, but much too free to please him and without military direction from generals on down. They were far from a disciplined army, without a true military command and appeared to the Greeks as little more than barbarians. The only thing which united the Crusaders was the common objective to free the Holy Land from Moslem rule. The emperor needed to get rid of them and transport them across the Bosphorus as soon as he could. He designated sites outside the city for their encampment because they were a danger to his city. He didn't think they would ever reach their objective, much less live through battles with the Seljuks who had defeated his own army, yet he had to get them to agree that any place they recaptured would belong to him. Negotiations took months, but eventually all agreed except Tancred, and the emperor provided boats to take them across the water. Nicaea Nicaea is just across the Bosphorus and was in firm control of the Seljuks even though a majority of its beleaguered citizens were Christian. Here the Crusaders found themselves face-up against walls the likes of which they had never seen before. Writes Harold Lamb :1 These walls baffled the Crusaders. Hitherto the fighters from the West had to deal with low earth or wooden ramparts. Sometimes they faced a single wall of stone... Nicaea had been a stronghold of the Romans, and the solid masonry six feet thick had hardened to the consistency of stone. One quarter of the walls fronted the lake, and here&emdash;lacking boats&emdash; the Crusaders could do nothing. From one edge of the lake to the other a moat circled the fortification. Behind the moat rose a narrow wall, about twice the height of a man, with small towers. About fifteen paces behind this stood the main defense, the great wall with more than a hundred towers. Before the siege of the city had actually begun a horde of Seljuks coming to reinforce Nicaea made a surprise attack on the Crusaders. The Crusaders had no time to put on their armor or saddle their horses, but grabbed their pikes and swords and by shear ferocity and steadfastness in one days' heated battle put the Seljuks on the run. The fortress, however, was another matter, too high to scale, too strong to tear down, and with one side open to water, the Turks could not be starved out. Eventually the Emperor's navy gained entrance to the open side and made a deal with the Seljuks that the victory would be his and not the Crusader's. The Crusaders were surprised when dawn broke to see the imperial flags floating from the towers. The emperor provided the Moslem leaders with safe passage out so they would be unharmed by the Crusaders. Not a few Crusaders were disappointed because of their losses in battle and felt cheated out of the spoils of war by the emperor, but he paid off the leaders (not before they swore further fealty to him) and there was no trouble. The emperor didn't dare let the Crusaders into the city; he knew they would tear the place apart, but the Crusaders, still on a holy pilgrimage, wanted to pray in the churches, so he let in every 10th person on different days. We have not found out in what these "prayers" consisted. There were many Latin-rite priests among the Crusaders; did they offer Masses in the Greek churches? Very likely. Certainly they offered Mass especially on Sunday, but where? The point is: the "division" of a few years before (1054) had not yet taken place. In practice there was no distinction between "Catholic" and "Orthodox". When the Crusaders got ready to continue their journey, the emperor to protect his interests appointed General Tacitius and a small Greek army to accompany them. Were there Greek priests with this army? Dorylaeum2 Of course the Crusaders, by now swelled to about a half million, following their own leaders, broke up into separate armies and journeyed a day or so apart. On July 1st the Seljuks again descended on the advance guard, intending to kill them all just as they had done to Hermit Peter's "army". The guard would have been slaughtered by the shouting, racing Mongols were it not for reinforcements who came up from the rear. The knights in heavy armor on large horses at first were no match for the smaller Mongols on fast little horses, but there were so many Crusaders, and they held their line in stalwart fashion and finally routed the Seljuks, never to be bothered by them again. A Death March. The Crusaders &emdash; knights, foot soldiers, servants of all kinds, priests, pilgrims and stragglers&emdash; continued through Asia Minor but it became a death march for many of them in the salty desert. The Seljuks as they retreated destroyed every farm, burned every fruit tree, and even filled in the wells. Going through the parched land in July sun with very little water or food for men and horse almost did the Crusading army in and not a few men and beast died. Armenians Stll there was desert, which proved almost as great an enemy as the Seljuks, until one night camped by the only river there, chanced by some Armenian Christians who for three generations had escaped persecution in their native land; they told the Crusaders that their only hope of survival was to carry with them enormous quantities of water for men and horse. Edessa Some Armenians convinced one army of the Crusaders, that under Count Baldwin of Flanders, to come to their city of Edessa,3 and free them from the domination of the Seljuks, hence this army didn't go through the Cicilian Gates as did the others, but by another pass to Edessa. This was the beginning of the first of what would be known as the four Crusader States. This very year (1097) they drove the Seljuks out of Edessa all right, but in time became the masters of the Armenians, replacing their government. But the Armenians didn't seem to mind, because under the Crusaders they prospered more than under their own masters. Enterprising and hardworking Armenians, not just their elite, made much profit from trade under the Crusader easy-going government. (This was not the time, however, when the Armenian Liturgy, which preserved traits of the Liturgy called that of St. James, underwent certain Latinizations; that would come later in Cilicia.) Cicilian Gates The remainder (majority) of the Crusaders climbed still higher from the Anatolian plateau into the Tarsus mountains (following the route of Alexander the Great). In places there was but a narrow trail. Imagine a half a million Crusaders going single file on mountain ledges, how long the line must have been, and how many days it would take them all to pass through the Gate. Charles Lamb quotes the Unknown :4 It was so high and narrow that along the path on its flank none of us go ahead of the others. Horses fell into the ravine, and one pack animal would drag over the others. In all quarters the knights showed their misery... asking themselves what they were to do and how they were to manage their arms. Some of them sold their shields and goodly harberks with their helms for three to five dinars, or for anything they could get. They who could not sell their arms cast them away for nothing at all, and marched on." There were little farms perched on mountain slopes and Armenian villages in the mountains. The Crusaders could not understand their language (except when there were certain Greeks present who knew Armenian) but the Armenians all wore little silver crosses which explained that they were Christian too. The Armenians sold them cheese and milk, bread and meat, and friendly relations began between the Western-rite Christians and the Armenians which became advantageous to both in future years. As they passed through the Cicilian Gates and saw the fertile plains below, there surfaced a change in policy. Yes, their main objective was Jerusalem, but several of the leaders let it be known that they intended to set up little kingdoms for themselves along the way. This seems like rank cupidity to us today, but as it turned out it was necessary. By now they were 2000 miles and more away from home; money and supplies were running out. Their little kingdoms, begun in avarice became centers of supply and recruitment for the final onslaught on Jerusalem and to hold the Holy Land for some years to come. 1Lamb, Harold, The Crusades, Iron Men and Saints, Doubleday Doran & Co., New York, 1930, pg. 114) 2A plain near the ancient city of that name. 3The ancient stronghold of the Nestorians. 4Lamb, Charles, op. cit., pg. 138. The "Unknown" was a chronicler, surely one of the Crusaders himself, who wrote an account of much of the Crusaders' ventures. http://www.cathorth.hist.edu/crusd1.html [ February 26, 2001: Message edited by: MJ ]

quote:Originally posted by LISA: Yes, but why not just move back home? I'd rather be homeless than batterred. I think when possible, they would do it. But as a rule, there is not much "space" back home, either. I am not sure that being homeless is an acceptable alternative either. In my view, these issues may be solved with the solution of the rest of the issues.

quote:Originally posted by LISA: LOL! Are some of these women staying with abusive men because they fear they will be deemed "dirty" and will never have the possibility to marry again and enjoy a healthy relationship? Your thoughts? In my view, the problem is in the ability of making the ends meet, and acquiring real estate to live in.

quote:Originally posted by DoC: Gamavor, Good to know that there are still some kinky Armenians out there... oh God, we're going to Hell! ;p I think you have missed his sarcasm ...