Russo-turkish Wars

[gamavor]

I would like to open a thread about Russo-Turkish wars. These wars, starting from 17c up until WWI have had tremendous impact on the future not only of Caucasus, but also the Balkans and even Europe as a whole. They reinforced the role of Russia as a world power, and also the early divisions on the European continent. Russo-Turkish wars due to their occurrence in the specific historical time were reflection of the technological revolution, they implored new military tactics. The peace treaties and preliminary negotiations have introduced new political concepts and gave a new vision for the word diplomacy.

Russo-Turkish wars played significant role in the liberation movements in the Balkans and later on in Caucasus. Large number of Armenian military personnel took direct participation on both fronts – Balkans and Caucasus. Often the military leadership and the major body of the conscripts on the Eastern front consisted of Armenians.

I will start these series with a short and very broad introduction and I hope that some of you (I hope, all of you) will contribute to this topic.

 

 

Russo - Turkish Wars

 

During the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries Russia was expanding eastwardly in hopes of establishing themselves on the Black Sea. However, the Ottoman Empire left that strategic point in the hands of Ottoman sultans and their vassals, the khans of the Crimea. These wars were an attempt by Russia to find an outlet on the Black Sea and in priority, stages of conquest,of the Caucasus, Balkan Peninsula , and to gain control over the Bosporus and Dardanellles straits thus obtaining access to world trade routes.

 

The war between the Russians and the Crimea Tatars was a chronic condition. In 1696 Peter I won the first Russian victory by capturing the fortress of Azov; it was recaptured (1711) by Ahmid III. In 1736 war broke out again, with Austria as a Russian ally. The Russian recaptured Azov and won a spectacular battle at Jassy Moldavia (1739), but the treaty forced on Russia by Austria erased most of Russia's gains. The first major Russo-Turkish War (1768-74) began when Sultan Mustafa III, encouraged by France, declared war on Catherine II of Russia

 

 

(zarinas of Russia Catherine I, 1637-1727 (r. 1725-27). was born Martha Skavronskaya a Ivonian peasant. She became the mistress of Meshnikov an advisor to Peter I and then of Peter, who married her in 1712 and had her crowned czarina in 1724. When he died without naming a successor she was raised to the throne by Menshikoz, who dominated her rule, her daughter Elizabeth became czarina in 1741 Catherine II or Catherine the Great in 1729) the Russians conquered the Crimea, installed a pro-Russian khan there, and overran Moldavia and Walechia. In what was called the Northern War (1700-1721). The Treaty ending the war solidified

 

 

A Monument to Ctaherine the Great

 

http://w3.tyenet.com/kozlich/catherine.jpg

 

Russia's Crimea gains (Catherine annexed it outright in 1783), gave Russia a voice in Turkish domestic matters, and allowed it navigation rights on the Black Sea. These developments alarmed the Western powers, exacberating what became known as the Eastern Question. (The Eastern question a term designating the problem of European territory controlled by the Ottoman Empire in the 18th and 19th and early 2oth century. The Turkish threat to Europe was checked by the Hapsburgs in the 16th century, but the Ottoman Turks still controlled the Balkan Peninsula. With the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire began and Russia started to push toward the Black Sea

In the 18th century, France supported the Turks against the Russia and Austria. The Eastern Question came into sharp focus during the reign of Czarina Catherine II with the first two of the Russo-Turkish Wars (1768-74, 1787-92), when Russia in alliance with Austria, planned the partition of the Ottoman Empire. Constantinople was the chief prize coveted by Russia , which lacked an adequate warm water outlet to the sea. These designs aroused alarm in Prussia, and, more especially Great Britain, which saw its dominance in the Mediterranean threatened by Russian ambitions. (Later it was the strategic importance of the Suez Canal that most concerned Britain.) The formation of a diplomatic alliance by Great Britain, Prussia, and the Netherlands and the Austrian defeats at the hand of the Turks offset Russian successes; yet the first stage of the struggle, terminating with the Treaty of Jassy (1792), left Russia with a foothold on the north shore of the Black Sea.)

 

Catherine's second war (1787-92) gave Russia the SW Ukraine with Odessa. the war of 1806-12 gave it Bessarbia. The war of 1828-29, linked with the Greek War of Independence, completed the conquest of the Caucasus and brought Russian power to its zenith

 

http://w3.tyenet.com/kozlich/balak.jpg

 

 

The Crimean War , 1853-56, war between Russia on one hand and the Ottoman Empire , England, France and Sardinia on the other. The causes of the conflict were inherent in the unsolved Eastern Question. The more immediate occasion was a dispute between Russia and France over the Palestinian holy places. Challenging the claim of Russia to guardianship of the holy place, France in1852 secured from Sultan Abd al-Majid certain privileges for the Latin churches. Russian countermands were turned down (1853)

 

by the Ottoman Government. In July, 1853, Russia retorted by ussurping the vassal states of Moldavia and Walachia, and in October, after futile negotiations, the Ottomans declared war. In March 1854, England and France having already dispatched fleets to the Black Sea, declared war on Russia; Sardinia followed suit in Jan., 1855. Austria remained neutral, but threatening to enter the war on the Ottoman side forced Russia to evacuate Moldavia and Walachia, which were occupied (Aug., 1854) by Austrian troops. In September 1854 , allied troops landed in the Crimea, with the object of capturing Sevastopol. The Russian fortress defended by Totlenben, resisted heroically until Sept., 1855. Allied commandeers were Lord Raglan for the British an Marshall Saint-Arnaud, succeeded later by Marshall Canobert, for the French military operations, which were marked on both sides by great stubbornness, gallantry, and disregard for casualties, remained localized. Famous episodes were the battles of Balaklava and Inkerman (1854) and the allied capture (1855) of Malakhov and Redan, which preceded the fall of Sevastapol. On the Asian front the Russians gained advantages and occupied Kars. The accession (1855) of Czar Alexander II and the capture of Sevastapol led to peace negotiations that resulted (Feb., 8566 in the Treaty of Paris. The Crimean War ended the dominate role of Russia in SE Europe; the cooling of Aurtro-Russian relations was an important factor in subsequent European history. The scandalous treatment of the troops, particularly the wounded, depicted by war correspondence, prompted the work of Florence Nightingale, which was perhaps the most positive result of the war.

 

But in 1853 Turkey had the backing of England and France in the Crimean war; the Congress of Paris (1856) ending that war was a significant setback for Russian influence in the Middle East. The last Russo-Turkish War resulted from an anti Turkish uprising (1875) in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Serbia and Montenegro joined in and Russia openly entered the war in 1877. The Treaty of San Stefano (1878) ended the war on terms so beneficial to Russia that the Western powers, in alarm, revised the terms at the

 

.

Congress of Paris

1856, held by representatives of France Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), Sardinia, Russia, Austria, and Prussia to negotiate the peace after the Crimea War. In the Treaty of Paris (Mar 30,1856), Russia agreed to the neutralization of the Black Sea, which was closed to war vessels and open to merchant marines of all nations. The Danubian principalities (Moldavia and Walachia, after 1859 called Romania) were recognized as quasi independent states under Ottoman suzerainty, to them Russia ceded the left bank of the mouth of the Danube and part of Bessarabia. The lower Danube was placed under international commission. The boundaries of Russia and the Ottoman Empire in Asia were restored to their pre-war limits (to the detriment of Russia). The Ottoman Empire became a member of the European concert, and its integrity was guaranteed; the sultan in turn promised to improve the status of his Christian subjects. Several principles of international law were adopted by the Congress in the Declaration of Paris. The provisions of the Treaty were altered (1878) by the Congress of Berlin.

 

 

San Stefano Treaty

1878, o\peace treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, at the conclusion of the last Russo-Turkish Wars; it was signed at at San Stefano (now Yesikoy) a village west of Istanbul, Turkey. The Ottomans ceded to Russia parts of Armenia and the Dobruja; agreed to pay a very large indemnity, recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro; and increased the territories of Serbia and Montenegro. Bulgaria was made an autonomous principality and was immensely enlarged, and the Ottoman Empire promised reforms for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Because the Treaty modified the Treaty of Paris of 1856 and greatly increased Russian influence in SE Europe, the other great powers obtained its revision at an international conference Berlin Congress.

 

 

Berlin Congress

1878, international meeting called primarily to thwart Russian expansion in the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). Included were all European powers, Russia, and Turkey, with Otto von Bismark as chairman. The treaty that resulted significantly changed the existing political situation in eastern Europe. Montenegro, Serbia and Romania were recognized as independent; Bosnia and Herzegovina were assigned to Austria-Hungary; the boundary lines between Greece and Turkey were redrawn; S Bessarabia was ceded to Russia; and Cyprus was put under British occupation. Russia was angered at Bismark's handling of the conference, thus ending the first

THREE EMPEROR' LEAGUE

 

 

http://w3.tyenet.com/kozlich/russo_turkish_wars.htm

Edited December 28, 2003 by gamavor

[Accelerated]

Its been a long while since Ive read about this stuff, but ill make a couple comments nevertheless....

 

I think its fair to say that had it not been for outside interference the Ottoman Empire would have been smashed by the Russians and their Balkan allies long before WW1. The British with their constant paranoia always got in the way of things - France alone could have done little to counter Russian designs for the Balkans and Austra was a waning power, while Prussia had not yet become a power though under Frederick she went a long way to adress that.

 

I think in many ways 19th century Britain is like the US today - she had defeated her most bitter rival Napoleonic France (US defeated USSR) and pretty much secured ascendancy over the globe, but the rise of other powers who threatened her domination triggered paranoia and knee-jerk reactions - some justified perhaps - I am not the one to judge.

 

The Crimean War was an amusing fiasco, rife with millitary incompetency on all sides. The vast majority of all casualties were suffered through desease, malnutrition and bad conditions, not combat. Unfortunatelly Russian commanders proved to be the more incompetent, hence the loss of Sebastopol and subsequent defeat. It was however a minor setback as a year later Russia defied the treaty (ordering her war fleet into the Black Sea) and no-one was willing to enforce it.

 

The Crimean War , 1853-56, war between Russia on one hand and the Ottoman Empire , England, France and Sardinia on the other.

 

I am fairly certain that it was Piedmont, not Sardinia - Sardinia may have been part of Piedmont, but the latter would have been more dominant.

 

Gams, cheers for posting this topic - hopefully not the last of its kind

Edited December 28, 2003 by Accelerated

[Accelerated]

I should also note, 19th century British politics was largelly dominated by two individuals: d'Israeli - a charming Jew born to a middle class familly and (surprisingly) leader of the 'conservatives' (I forget the names of the two major political parties (wigs and torries I think), but for relevance sake will call them conservatives/liberals) and Gladstone - a practicing Christian, a humanist and the leader of the 'liberal' party. d'Israeli policies were staunchly pro-Ottoman and anti-Russian. Gladstone on the other hand although not the complete opposite, believed in freeing the Balkan peoples from Ottoman oppression - but not handing them to the Tsar. In any event he was constantly hampered by general British public opinion and the Queen (who happened to like d'Israeli and distrusted Gladstone, because fundamentally his views could mean that the British colonies and posessions should also rule themsleves). In any case Gladstone was the Prime Minister when the Crimean War started. He was against involvement, but the British public was whipped into a war frenzy and he had no choice but to declare war. It is almost certain without the British, the French would not have gotten involved. In fact they should have had little interest, but an alliance with Britain was Napoleon III's dearest wish.

[gamavor]

The "Eastern Question" began to emerge after the Napoleonic wars as a European balance of power problem revolving around the fate of the weakening Ottoman Empire. Following its victory over the Ottoman Empire in 1829 when it took the mouth of the Danube and the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Russia continued to seek warm water ports with access to the big seas, eyeing especially access to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus. Russia also continued expanding into the Caucasus and toward Persia. Britain was concerned about these possible threats to its own possessions and communications with the East. France entered the equation with the rise to power in 1848 of Louis Napoleon who sought to consolidate his position and increase national prestige by declaring the Second Empire in 1852.

 

The catalyst for war was a growing dispute from 1840s over the religious custody of Christian Holy Places in Palestine. Catholic monks under French protection had tended the Jerusalem and Bethlehem holy places since the sixteenth century, and this had been guaranteed in perpetuity by the Ottoman capitulations of 1740. These privileges, as well as French pilgrimages, lapsed during the turbulent anticlerical French revolutionary and Napoleonic era. Louis Napoleon, seeing the possibilities for political influence, sought reinstatement of the capitulations in 1852, and, after his coronation as Emperor, his concern about religion in the East became a rallying cry for French Catholics. The Sultan supported French claims of jurisdiction. Tsar Nikolai I objected that Russia was the true defender of Christianity in the East, that such a protectorate existed by the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji (1774), and that Greek Orthodox were by far the majority Christians (ten million) in the East. The dispute broke into violence in Jerusalem between Catholic and Orthodox monks, and the Muslim governor intervened in 1847 to prevent Christian killing Christian. More importantly, French imperial intrigues revived Russian proposals for dividing the Ottoman empire. The tsar secretly sounded out the British about dismembering the Ottoman empire, but the British, continuing Palmerston's policy of containing Russia, indicated they would do all they could to keep the dying empire alive.

 

In March 1853 Russia issued an ultimatum that amounted to a demand for Ottoman unconditional surrender: recognition of exclusive Orthodox Christian rights in the Holy Land, Russian protection of those rights, restrictions on other Christians who might interfere with Russian influence, and a new secret alliance to "protect" the Ottoman Empire from the French. The Sultan refused. In July Russia invaded the Ottoman Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. For five months the Turks held the upper hand, encouraged by a British and French naval show of force around the Dardanelles. When in November the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed the Turkish fleet off Sinope, Britain and France were alarmed and sent an expedition to the East to protect the Ottoman Empire from Russian aggression. The eventual main object was a punitive strike to destroy the Black Sea Fleet and its Crimean base at Sebastopol. In other theatres, the Turks fought Russian advances in Armenia, and the British and French sent fleets into the Baltic. There were also minor naval engagements in the White Sea and the north Pacific.

 

 

 

 

Chronology (except battles, which see below)

 

 

1829 Russo-Ottoman war resulted in Russian territorial gains

1853.03.02 Prince Menshikov arrived in Constantinople with a Russian ultimatum

1853.05.31 Russia broke off relations with the Ottoman Empire after the Sultan refused their demands

1853.06.08 a British fleet approached the Dardanelles as a show of force in support of the Turks

1853.07.02 Russian army invaded Moldavia and Wallachia

1853.10.05 Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia

1853.10.28 a Turkish army crossed the Danube River at Kalafat

1853.10.30 the British fleet entered the Bosporus

1853.11.04 the Turks defeated the Russians at Oltenitza, and later at Citate (5 Jan. 1855)

1853.11.30 Russian Black Sea fleet destroyed Turkish naval squadron at Sinope; Britain and France decided to take retaliatory action

1854.01.04 Allied fleets entered the Black Sea

1854.01.08 the Russians invaded the Dobruja (Romania)

1854.02.10 a British peace deputation visited the tsar

1854.02.23 first British troops set sail for the East

1854.03.11 British Baltic Fleet sailed from Spithead

1854.03.19 French troops set sail for the East

1854.0320 French Baltic Fleet sailed

1854.03.28 France and Great Britain declared war on Russia after the latter refused ultimatum to withdraw from the Principalities

1854.04.05 British troops arrived at Gallipoli

1854.04.14 Russians besieged Silistra (Bulgaria)

1854.04.18 Turks defeated Russians at Rohova (Romania)

1854.04.20 Austria and Prussia declared their neutrality

1854.06.23 the Russians abandoned the siege of Silistra when Austria threatened to come to the aid of the Turks, and withdrew from Bulgaria; this could have ended the war except that the British and French had entered the theatre

1854.05.28 Allied force embarked at Gallipoli for Varna (Bulgaria)

1854.05.31 Allies begin landing at Varna to defend Turkish Balkans, but Russians withdrew

1854.06.26 French and British fleets arrived off of Kronstadt, near St. Petersburg in the Baltic

1854.06.28 the British and French governments decided to destroy the Russian naval base of Sebastopol in the Crimea

1854.07.07 the Turks defeated the Russians at Giurgevo (Romania)

1854.07.28 the Turks defeated the Russians at Bayezid (Armenia)

1854.08.21 British squadron bombarded Kola in the White Sea

1854.09.05 Allied force embarked at Varna (Bulgaria) for the Crimea

1854.09.14 Allied forces landed unopposed in the Crimea (Kalamata Bay, north of Sevastopol)

1854.09.19 Allied forces first encountered Russians (at the River Bulganek) and the battle for Sebastopol began (Russians scuttled the fleet to block harbour entrance on 23 Sep., and the first allied bombardment began 17 Oct.)

1855.01.26 Kingdom of Piedmont (Sardinia) joined the Allies

1855.01.31 Lord Aberdeen's government fell

1855.02.05 Lord Palmerston formed a new government.

1855.03.02 tsar Nikolai I died, succeeded by Aleksandr II; Menshikov recalled

1855.03.15 peace Conference of Vienna opened

1855.04.26 Vienna conference ended with no diplomatic progress

1855.06.16 first Russian attack on Kars (Armenia)

1855.09.09 after a year-long siege, the Russians evacuated Sebastopol

1855.09.29 Turkish troops withdrawn from Crimea and embarked for Armenia

1855.10.03 Turkish expedition to relieve Kars landed at Suchum Kaleh, south of the Caucasus Mountains

1855.10.07 Anglo-French Kinburn expedition sailed from the Crimea for the mouth of the Dnieper River

1855.10.22 second Turkish force landed at Trebizond and marched to Erzerum (Armenia)

1855.11.06 the Turks defeated the Russians at the River Ingur, south of the Caucasus Mountains

1855.11.25 Kars (Armenia) capitulated to Russians and Turks withdrew from the River Skeniscal

1855.12.16 Count Esterhazy delivered an Austrian ultimatum to St. Petersburg

1855.12.23 the British began destruction of naval and military installations at Sebastopol

1856.01.16 tsar Alexander II accepted the Austrian demands

1856.02.25 Paris Peace Conference opened

1856.02.29 Armistice signed

1856.03.30 Treaty of Paris signed

1856.04.27 Britain ratified the Treaty of Paris

1856.07.12 last British troops left the Crimea

1871 Russia abrogated Treaty of Paris

1878 Russo-Ottoman war further weakened Turkey

1878 British defensive treaty with Ottoman empire secured right to occupy and administer Cyprus

 

 

 

Results

 

 

After a year-long siege, Britain captured the Russian naval base of Sebastopol and proceeded to destroy all its naval and military installations in December 1855 while preparing for a spring offensive. But the war had already exhausted the Allies, and both sides accepted an Austrian-mediated armistice. The subsequent Treaty of Paris did much to set back Russian expansionism by almost a hundred years, but Aleksandr I viewed this as a temporary reversal and a "blot on his reign". Britain, France and Austria guaranteed the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, but a degree of autonomy was granted to Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia. The Black Sea and Bosporus Straits became a demilitarised zone with warships and naval arsenals on its shores denied.

 

Tsar Aleksandr saw his first opportunity when in 1870 France was incapacitated by its war with Prussia. Chancellor Bismarck suggested a diplomatic compromise, and in 1871 the signatories of the 1856 treaty lifted the restrictions and allowed Russia to fortify Sebastopol and rebuild its Black Sea Fleet. The western powers did not foresee the disastrous results. Fomenting pan-Slavic insurrection in the Balkans in order to extend tsarist influence, Russia ignored British appeals for moderation and claimed that its own security was threatened. With the Turks on the verge of regaining control of its erstwhile Balkan provinces and tales of Turkish atrocities abounding, Russia mobilised 650,000 men and invaded Romania and Bulgaria in 1877, while simultaneously advancing once again against Kars in the east. The Ottoman empire was decisively beaten, and by the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878, it recognised the independence or autonomy of Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Romania.

 

Britain, feeling once again threatened by the altered status of the Straits and Russian designs on the Mediterranean, concluded a defensive treaty with the Ottoman Empire which included the right to occupy and administer Cyprus. Taking on the role of "honest broker", Bismarck convened the Congress of Berlin in 1878 to peacefully revise the Treaty of San Stefano with a view to restoring the balance of power. Russia returned few territorial gains to the Ottoman empire, but some were divided between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro remained independent with additional territory. Greater Bulgaria was cut off from the Aegean and reduced to an Ottoman principality. Russia restored parts of Armenia, but retained Kars and other cities. The treaty also reconfirmed the demilitarisation of the Bosporus Straits.

 

 

 

 

Forces and Casualties

 

 

peak forces total forces total dead KIA-

DOW NCD civilian dead WIA PW-MIA

Britain 97,864 22,182 4,602c 17,580 18,280

France 309,268 95,615 20,240 73,375 39,870

Ottoman Emp. 165,000 45,400 20,900 24,500

Piedmont 21,000 2,194 28 2,166

subtotal 593,132 165,391 45,770 117,621

Russia 888,000a 450,015b 73,125 377,000

TOTAL 1,481,132 615,378 118,895

 

a. total mobilised; total serving on war fronts was 324,478

b. includes deaths in all Russia without reaching a war front

c. twenty percent were "friendly fire" deaths

 

 

 

 

Death Toll, by Matthew White (Historical Atlas of the 20th Century)

Officers Killed: Staff, by Stephen Lewis.

Officers Killed: Cavalry, by Stephen Lewis.

Officers Killed: Infantry, by Stephen Lewis.

Officers Killed: Baltic Campaign, by Stephen Lewis.

Deaths by Natural Causes, by Stephen Lewis.

Graves of NCOs and Men, by Stephen Lewis.

Crimean War Casualties, by David Stephens.

 

 

 

Commanders

 

 

Britain and Allies:

Gen. Fitzroy James Henry (Somerset), 1st Baron Raglan commander-in-chief, British expeditionary force d. 1855.06.28

Sir James Simpson commander-in-chief, British expeditionary force 1855.07.01-1855.11.11

Lt-Gen. Sir William John Codrington commander-in-chief, British expeditionary force 1855.11.11-

Brig-Gen. William Fenwick Williams commander Kars garrison [no British forces]

Vice Adm. Sir James Dundas commander, British Black Sea fleet 1854-1854.12.22

Sir Edmund Lyons commander, British Black Sea fleet 1854.12.22-

Adm. Sir Charles Napier commander, British Baltic fleet

Maréchal Jacques Leroy de Saint Arnaud Commandant du corps expéditionnaire d'Orient d. 1854.09.29

Gén. François Canrobert Commandant du corps expéditionnaire d'Orient 1854.09.29-1855.05.16

Gén. Aimable-Jean-Jacques Pélissier Commandant du corps expéditionnaire d'Orient 1855.05.16-

Gén. Achille Baraguay d'Hilliers commander in Baltic

Hamelin commander, French Black Sea fleet 1854-1854.12.24

Brout commander, French Black Sea fleet 1854.12.24-

Omar ***** supreme commander, Ottoman armies

Mussa ***** commander Silistria garrison

Selim *****

Gen. Alfonso Ferrero della Marmora commander, Piedmont forces

 

Russia:

Gen. Adjutant Prince Aleksandr Sergeievich Menshikov commander-in-chief Black Sea fleet and Crimea garrison 1854-1855.03

Gen. Prince Mikhail Gorchakov commander-in-chief Black Sea fleet and Crimea garrison 1855.03-

Adm. Kornilov commander, Black Sea fleet & Sebastopol

Marshal Ivan Pakevich commander in Balkans

Gen. Muraviev commander in Armenia

 

http://www.regiments.org/milhist/wars/19thcent/53crimea.htm

[gamavor]

http://www.icp.ac.ru/RAS_1724-1999/CD_PAH/IMAGES/6/6025.JPG

 

LORIS-MELIKOV, MICHAEL TARIELOVICH, COUNT (1825? 1888), Russian statesman, son of an Armenian merchant, was born at Tiflis in 1825 or 1826, and educated in St Petersburg, first in the Lazarev School of Oriental Languages, and afterwards in the Guards Cadet Institute. He joined a hussar regiment, and four years afterwards (1847) he was sent to the Caucasus, where he remained for more than twenty years, and made for himself during troublous times the reputation of a distinguished cavalry officer and an able administrator. In the latter capacity, though a keen. soldier, he aimed always at preparing the warli,ke and turbulent population committed to his charge for the transition from military to normal civil administration, and in this work his favorite instrument was the schoolmaster. In the Russo-Turkish War of 187778 he commanded a separate corps darme on the Turkish frontier in Asia Minor. After taking the fortress of Ardahan, he was repulsed by Mukhtar ***** at Zevin, but subsequently defeated his opponent at Aladja Dagh, took Kars by storm, and laid siege tO Erzerum. For these services he received the title of Count. In the following year he was appointed temporary governor-gen.elal of the region of the Lower Volga, to combat an outbreak of the plague. The measures he adopted proved so effectual that he was transferred to the provinces of Central Russia to combat the Nihilists and Anarchists, who had adopted a policy of terrorism, and had succeeded in assassinating the governor of Kharkov. His success in this struggle led to his being appointed chief of the Supreme Executive Commission which had been created in St Petersburg to deal with the revolutionary agitation in general. Here, as in the Caucasus, he showed a decided preference for the employment of ordinary legal methods rather than exceptional extra-legal measures, and an attempt on his own life soon after he assumed office did not shake his convictions. In his opinion the best policy was to strike at the root of the evil by removing the causes of popular discontent, and for this purpose he recommended to the emperor a large scheme of administrative and economic reforms. Alexander II., who was beginning to lose faith in the efficacy of the simple method of police repression hitherto employed, lent a willing ear to the suggestion; and when the Supreme Commission was dissolved in August 1880, he appointed Count Loris-Melikov Minister of the Interior with exceptional powers. The proposed scheme of reforms was at once taken in hand, but it was never carried out. On the very day in March 1881 that the emperor signed a ukaz creating several commissions, composed of officials and eminent private individuals, who should prepare reforms in various branches of the administration, he was assassinated by Nihilist conspirators; and his successor, Alexander III., at once adopted a strongly reactionary policy. Count Loris-Melikov immediately resigned, and lived in retirement until his death, which took place at Nice on the 22nd of December 1888. (D. M. W.)

 

 

http://5.1911encyclopedia.org/L/LO/LORIS_M...OVICH_COUNT.htm

Edited January 15, 2004 by gamavor

[Accelerated]

wow, I've read about this guy (the reforms he was to carry-out), but I never knew he was of Armenian extraction. Good stuff, gams.

 

I should add, that the day Alexander II was assassinated, his grandson Nicolas II (the last Russian emperor) was looking out the window and witnessed the whole thing. If my memory serves me right, he was only 9 at the time. And yeah, it was a pretty horrific affair: was a bomb that blew off the Emperors legs and he basically bled to death.

Edited January 15, 2004 by Accelerated

[gamavor]

Count Loris-Melikov was not only very close to the Russian empirial court but part of it. His wife was also from the high noble ranks of the Russian Tzars.

BTW, some of his ancestors reside in Texas, San-Antonio. His Great-Great grand nephew, by name Greg, if I'm not mistaken.

Besides all honors and attributes, Loris-Melikov according to some was regarded as the father of ANTI-TERRORISM that first broke out in Russia. He was a briliant legal mind and the right hand of Alexander II.

[gamavor]

The Serbo-TurkishWar 1876

 

INTRODUCTION

 

This article deals with a little known prelude to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. For the wargamer it offers an alternative opponent for those owning a Turkish army of the period and opens up the possibility of a wider campaign game.

 

There was at the time significant British interest in the war. Gladstone made it the political issue of the day attacking Disraeli's policy of support for the Porte against Russian expansion. This encouraged the usual late Nineteenth century practice of professional soldiers turning up uninvited to observe (or sometimes participate in) the latest war. In addition humanitarian missions provided first aid to both sides. Happily for us several of these participants recorded their observations giving us an English language view of the war.

 

BACKGROUND

 

In 1875 a revolt broke out in Herzgovina more against the local rulers than the Ottoman Empire. Russian foreign policy influenced by the Panslavists did little to discourage Serbian and Montenegrin support for the revolt. This was the age of romantic nationalism and revolutionary drive in the Balkans and the governments of both Serbia and Montenegro were forced by public opinion into declaring war against the Ottoman Empire by the summer of 1876. 3,000 Russian volunteers poured into the area and General Cherniaev who had been responsible for Russian success in Central Asia took command of the Army of the Morava.

 

THE OPPOSING FORCES

 

The main Serbian army under Cerniaev concentrated at the Southern fortress of Aleksinac. It consisted of 3 Serbian divisions and a variety of volunteer formations totaling about 45,000 men. In the North-East, Lesjanin based at Saicar commanded an infantry division (6000) with cavalry support and the Bulgarian Legion (2000). In the West there were two weak divisions (5000 each), one in the South-West at Usica commanded by Zack and one in the North-West at Sabac commanded by Alympic.

 

The main Turkish army was based at Sofia under Abdul Kerim with 50,000 men plus irregular Bashi-Bazouks and Circassians. There was a garrison at the border fortress of Nis commanded by Mehemet with 8000 men. In the North-West at Vidin, Osman Nuri had 23,000 men. In the west there were small garrisons at Bjelina and Zvornik with a larger force (12,000 mostly Arabs and Egyptians) under Dervish and Mehemet Ali in the Sanjak.

 

OPERATIONS

 

The war can be divided into three phases:

 

1. Serbian Offensive - July/August 1876

 

The ambitious Serbian plan was to mask Nis and attack Sofia with the main army under Cherniaev. Other armies would launch diversionary attacks. In the west these were repulsed and in the North-East Lesjanin was defeated at Kior. He failed to hold the Turkish counterattack on the Timok river and fell back to the fortress at Saicar which itself fell on 7th August.

 

The main advance in the south began well, thrusting down the Nisava valley and capturing the important heights at Babina Glava north of Pirot. The Turks then responded with two columns under Suleiman and Hafiz, flanking the Serbs and forcing them back up the valley. In a series of fierce actions Cherniaev was forced back to the heights covering the frontier town of Kniasevac. Wrongly believing the main attack would be at Saicar to the north, he left Colonel Horvatovic at Kniasevac with insufficient forces to repel the combined Turkish columns. Chernaiev withdrew into the mountains west of the Timok to defend the Morava valley.

 

2. The Morava Battles - August 1876

 

The Turkish commander Abdul Kerim decided against storming the difficult mountain position between the Timok and Morava. Instead he concentrated 40,000 troops at Nis and advanced up the easier country of the Morava valley towards Aleksinac. Cherniaev had less than 30,000 men stretched across both sides of the Morava and into the mountains. Turkish firepower followed by a frontal attack with the bayonet drove the Serbians in rout back to Aleksinac. Only Abdul Kerim's indecision and the arrival of Horvatovic's fresh division steadied the line at Djunis.

 

3. The Battles of Djunis - October 1876

 

Following a brief armistice and the failure of negotiations the new Serbian commander Horvatovic attacked the Turkish positions from Djunis to Aleksinac on 28th September. They were repulsed all along the front. The Turks regrouped and on 19th October the Division of Adyl ***** launched a surprise attack on the Serbian right. This attack eventually forced the Serbians back to Deligrad. On 29 October this heavily fortified position was also stormed and the road to Belgrade lay open to the Turks.

 

Serbia was saved by a Russian ultimatum backed up by 200,000 troops in Bessarabia. The armistice and subsequent convention in February 1877 served only as a respite before hostilities were recommenced in the later stages of the Russo-Turkish War.

 

THE OTTOMAN ARMY

 

The Ottoman army of this period is well documented and readers are advised to consult Ian Drury 'The Russo-Turkish War 1877' Osprey MAA 277. Substantial numbers of Redif troops were called up for this war mostly armed with former British Sniders. The superior Peabody-Martini was becoming more widely available and was certainly used by the Egyptian troops. Krupp breechloaders are most frequently mentioned although there must have been significant numbers of bronze guns. Turkish troops performed well during the war albeit badly officered and inadequately supplied.

 

THE SERBIAN ARMY

 

In 1875 the Serbian Ministry of War claimed the first ban of the army was 90,000 strong (75,000 effectives) and the second ban 51,000 (48,000 effectives). In fact less than 60,000 troops organised into six divisions materialised. The main rifle was the M.1870 Serbian Peabody which had a performance similar to the Russian Krnk. Whilst this was the best weapon available to Serbian troops many had to make do with the erratic M.1867 Serbian Greene conversion or even muzzle-loaders. Artillery batteries contained a variety of mostly bronze guns almost all inferior to the Turkish Krupps. There were very few cavalry squadrons reflecting the nature of the terrain and those which existed were poorly equipped. One volunteer squadron in the Morava army had to share a handful of pistols!

 

Uniform details are somewhat sparse. Knotel describes the regulation uniform as a double-breasted dark blue tunic with red distinctions, yellow metal buttons and forage caps. However eyewitness descriptions appear to indicate that this was the dress uniform worn mostly by officers and the few regular troops in the 1st ban. On campaign observers usually refer to a plain brown jacket and 'Glengarry-shaped' forage cap "cut in the same way at each end... made of coarse grayish-blue cloth". This is probably the traditional brown peasant costume which was worn by the 2nd ban. The Serbian standard (Red, Blue and White vertical stripes) was a frequent sight.

 

The volunteer forces add some colour to this army. Russian volunteers were initially mostly NCO's and officers, but later formed Russian battalions. There were Cossack lancers in their Russian uniforms a practice which became more common for all Russian troops as the war progressed. The Bulgarian Legion suffered heavy casualties at Kior although a reduced battalion was present in the Morava battles. There were also significant numbers of German, French, and Italian officers as well as a few British and Austrians.

 

Perhaps the most colourful unit was a 500 strong battalion of Montenegrins in their national dress consisting of a long white knee length coat, richly ornamented coloured waistcoat and jacket with either red or multi striped sash. Wide blue or white pantaloons and white gaiters. A black round cap with a flat crimson top. A British officer described their assault tactics as during the night before the attack laying guns at 100 yard intervals starting 700 yards from the enemy position. During the attack they would fire each gun, drop it and advance to the next line etc. The attack would be completed with the yataghan sword. They then sliced off the ears and noses of the vanquished!

 

Serbian troops generally did not perform well. They were mostly totally inexperienced militia whose early enthusiasm for the war was blunted by the reality of warfare with breach loading weapons.

 

WARGAME FIGURES

 

Ottoman and Russian figures present no problems with in 15mm the most extensive range being manufactured by Awesome Enterprises. To the best of my knowledge no company produces Serbian figures, which therefore requires some modest conversions. The only real problem is the 'Glengarry' forage cap. British infantry figures are probably the best starting point as the Glengarry was the undress cap of many English as well as Scottish regiments from 1868. Just file down both ends and remove the tuft and tails.

 

FURTHER READING

 

For the political and diplomatic background:

 

Jelavich , History of the Balkans Vol.1 Cambridge 1983

 

Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire Vol.2 Cambridge 1977

 

Anderson The Eastern Question MacMillan 1966

 

MacKenzie The Serbs and Russian Panslavism 1875-1878 Cornell 1967

 

For the campaign and armies:

 

Allen The Serbo-Turkish Campaign of 1876 Pallas Armata

 

Vincent The Turkish Forces and Military Aspects of the Eastern Question

 

Cromie The Military Forces of the Balkan Peninsula Pallas Armata

 

Knotel Uniforms of the World AAP 1980

 

Drury The Russo-Turkish War 1877 Osprey MAA 277

 

British eye witness accounts:

 

Salusbury Two Months with Tchernaieff in Servia Pallas Armata

 

Morris First Aid to the Battlefront Sutton 1992

 

Anderson The Balkan Volunteers Hutchinson 1968

 

 

A fuller version of this article with maps etc.can be consulted in the February 1998 issue of

 

The Foreign Correspondent, the journal of the Continental Wars Society.

 

 

Return to Balkan Military History home page http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/balkandave/serb1876.htm

[bellthecat]

I am fairly certain that it was Piedmont, not Sardinia - Sardinia may have been part of Piedmont, but the latter would have been more dominant.

It was Sardinia. The jumped-up little king of newly independant Sardinia wanted to prance around Europe as an equal to the rest of Europe's monarchy so, rather late on in the Crimean war, offered to supply an army to suppliment the depleated French and British forces in the Crimea (I think it was about 10,000 men). Most never arrived in time to fight - but the threat of their arrival encouraged the Russians to sue for peace. The Ottoman empire minted silver medals to British, French, and Sardinian troops. But many of the ones intended for Britain got lost in a shipwreck, so the Sardinian medals were issued in Britain instead. So the Sardinian troops got FA - which served them right for fighting in a war that had nothing to do with Sardinia!

 

It could be said that Sardinia acted in a similar way to what countries like Poland and Spain did during the recent invasion of Iraq. By smuggling up to a world power they get, for a brief moment, the ability to act on the world stage and feel all self-important.

 

Steve

[Accelerated]

It was Sardinia.

 

From, Gamavors 2nd post:

 

Gen. Alfonso Ferrero della Marmora commander, Piedmont forces

[bellthecat]

The medal is known as the "Sardinian issue".